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Acknowledgements
We acknowledge the financial support from the National Natural Science Foundation of China (grants 92263209 to Y.L., 52403358 to W.C. and 52103077 to F.Y.) and from the Foundation of Cangzhou Research Institute (grant TGCYY-F-0310 to F.Y.). We thank X. C. Zhang and H. Y. Li from the Department of Macromolecular Science and the Nanofabrication Lab at Fudan University for assistance with template fabrication. We also acknowledge S. Hu and Z. Y. Jia from the School of Electronics and Information Engineering at Tiangong University for help with experimental data analysis. We are grateful to J. Guo and Y. Zhang from the School of Chemistry at Tiangong University for support in device testing and characterization, and to J. X. Low, W. B. Zhang and J. H. Li from the School of Physical Science and Technology at Tiangong University for assistance in sample preparation.
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Extended data
Extended Data Fig. 1 Fabrication and characterization of nanohole-patterned PDMS molds using electron beam lithography (EBL)-defined Si nanopillar templates with varying periods.
a, Fabrication processes of nanohole-patterned PDMS mold. The following nine steps are involved in this method: (1) Spin-coating of positive electron-beam resist PMMA onto a Si substrate. (2) Fabrication of the designed PMMA nanohole array using high-resolution EBL. (3)–(6) Development of the exposed resist, deposition of a Cr film, and lift-off process to obtain the designed Cr nanopillar array. (7) Reactive ion etching (RIE) using Cr as a hard mask to etch into the underlying Si to a depth of approximately 350 nm. (8) Removal of the Cr mask using a Cr etchant, resulting in Si nanopillar arrays. (9) Surface fluorination and replica molding to fabricate a nanohole-patterned PDMS mold. b-e, SEM and optical images of the Si nanopillar templates with periods of 600 nm (b), 300 nm (c), 200 nm (d), and 150 nm (e). The top-left inset shows an optical image of the entire patterned region, covering an area of 8 × 8 mm² (b), 3 × 3 mm² (c), 0.2 × 0.2 mm² (d), and 2.5 × 2.5 mm² (e).
Extended Data Fig. 2 Fabrication and characterization of full-color RGB QD array patterns via sequential nanoimprint alignment.
a, Schematic illustration of the fabrication process for red–green–blue (RGB) QD array patterns. Green QDs were first imprinted onto the TFB-coated substrate, which contains alignment markers. The PDMS mold used for imprinting also carries corresponding alignment marks, enabling precise registration under an optical microscope. After imprinting, the PDMS mold was peeled off, leaving behind a green QD array. Subsequently, blue QDs were aligned and imprinted using the same method with the aid of the alignment markers and optical microscope, resulting in a green–blue patterned QD array. Finally, red QDs were imprinted to complete the full-color RGB QD array pattern as designed. b, SEM image of the designed Si nanopillar template structure and its magnified view (scale bar = 20 μm). c, Optical image of the corresponding PDMS mold and its magnified view (scale bar = 20 μm). d, Fluorescence microscope images of the imprinted QD array patterns: green (i), green–blue (ii), and red–green–blue (iii).
Extended Data Fig. 3 Nanoimprint patterning of high-resolution QD arrays on rigid and flexible substrates.
a, Schematic diagram of large-area patterning of ultra-high resolution QD array by nanoimprint lithography assisted by capillary force. Schematic illustration of the fabrication steps: (i) A lithographic pattern was written by laser direct writing onto a positive photoresist-coated substrate, without development. (ii) A QD array was imprinted onto the surface of the patterned photoresist. (iii) After solvent evaporation, the PDMS mold was peeled off, leaving the QD array deposited onto the photoresist surface. (iv) Development was then carried out, resulting in photoresist structures overlaid with QD arrays on either rigid (for example, Si) or flexible (for example, PET) substrates. 5° (b), 10° (c), 15° (d), and 20° (e). The integrity of the pattern type and shape is well preserved, demonstrating excellent mechanical flexibility and structural robustness of the imprinted QD arrays.
Extended Data Fig. 4 Microscope images of electroluminescent (EL) micro/nano-QLEDs.
a–e, EL images of red QLEDs with QD array periods of 20 µm (1,270 PPI) (a), 3 µm (8,467 PPI) (b), 1.5 µm (16,933 PPI) (c), 1 µm (25,400 PPI) (d), and 150 nm (169,333 PPI) (e). f–j, EL images of green QLEDs with QD array periods of 20 µm (1,270 PPI) (f), 3 µm (8,467 PPI) (g), 1.5 µm (16,933 PPI) (h), 1 µm (25,400 PPI) (i), and 150 nm (169,333 PPI) (j). k–o, EL images of blue QLEDs with QD array periods of 20 µm (1,270 PPI) (k), 3 µm (8,467 PPI) (l), 1.5 µm (16,933 PPI) (m), 1 µm (25,400 PPI) (n), and 150 nm (169,333 PPI) (o).
Extended Data Fig. 5 Integrated nanoimprint active-matrix micro-QLEDs.
a, Schematic illustration of the fabrication process for the active-matrix micro-QLED display. The fabrication process includes four main steps: (i) Cleaning of the TFT array substrate; (ii) Deposition of functional layers, including PEDOT:PSS and TFB, followed by nanoimprinting of red QD stripe patterns with a period of approximately 780 nm; (iii) Red QD stripe nanopatterns remained after PDMS stamp removal; (iv) Deposition of the remaining functional layers by spin-coating PMMA and ZnMgO, followed by electrode deposition and device encapsulation. b, Optical image of the TFT array substrate. c, AFM characterization of the line-patterned template employed for PDMS mold fabrication. The inset shows the height profile extracted from the AFM image. d, Photograph of the integrated nanoimprint active-matrix micro-QLEDs. The nano-patterned QD nanostripes are uniformly and reproducibly nanoimprinted across the TFT array substrate over a large area. Each microscale pixel unit (300 μm × 150 µm) contains hundreds of these nanoscale QD line structures. e, Fluorescence microscopy image of the patterned red QD nanostripes. f, Displayed images generated by a micro-QLED active-matrix prototype based on a commercial TFT array (300 μm × 150 μm pixel dimensions).
Extended Data Fig. 6 Characterization of ultrahigh-resolution blue nano-QLEDs.
a, Schematic diagram of the fabricated ultrahigh-resolution blue nano-QLED device. ITO/PEDOT:PSS/PF8Cz/QD-PMMA/ZnMgO/Al, in which the QD-embedded PMMA layer serves as the EML. b, Energy band diagram of the ultrahigh-resolution blue nano-QLEDs. c-g, EL spectrum (c), J–V (d), EQE–L (e), L–V (f), and CE-L (g) characteristics of blue nano-QLEDs. The inset in (c) is a schematic illustration of high-resolution blue QD emission patterns. h, Comparison of EQE values for nano-QLEDs with different PPIs and reference spin-coated QLEDs. Error bars represent the standard deviation from 3 individually tested devices. Whiskers: maxima and minima; bounds of box: 25th and 75th percentile; empty squares: mean.
Extended Data Fig. 7 EL characteristics and efficiency statistics of spin-coated and nanoimprinted red nano-QLEDs with varying pixel sizes and PPIs.
a-c, EL spectrum (a), J-V-L (b), and EQE-L-CE (c) characteristics of red QLEDs fabricated by spin coating. Inset: Optical image of the electroluminescence emission. Three representative devices were tested, all exhibiting peak EQEs exceeding 22%, with values of 23.9%, 23.5%, and 22.2%, respectively, indicating excellent device stability and reproducibility. d-f, EL spectrum (d), J-V-L (e), and EQE-L-CE (f) characteristics of red nano-QLEDs (42,333 PPI). Inset: Optical image of the electroluminescence emission. Three representative devices were tested, all exhibiting peak EQEs exceeding 17%, with values of 20.2%, 19.2%, and 17.8%, respectively, indicating minimal efficiency reduction. g-i, EL spectrum (g), J-V-L (h), and EQE-L-CE (i) characteristics of red nano-QLEDs (84,667 PPI). Inset: Optical image of the electroluminescence emission. Three representative devices were tested, all exhibiting peak EQEs exceeding 18%, with values of 18.9%, 18.8%, and 18.2%, respectively, indicating minimal efficiency reduction. j-l, EL spectrum (j), J-V-L (k), and EQE-L-CE (l) characteristics of red nano-QLEDs (169,333 PPI). Inset: Optical image of the electroluminescence emission. Three representative devices were tested, all exhibiting peak EQEs exceeding 16%, with values of 17.5%, 17.3%, and 16.2%, respectively, indicating minimal efficiency reduction.
Extended Data Fig. 8 EL characteristics and efficiency statistics of spin-coated and nanoimprinted green nano-QLEDs with varying pixel sizes and PPIs.
a-c, EL spectrum (a), J-V-L (b), and EQE-L-CE (c) characteristics of green QLEDs fabricated by spin coating. Inset: Optical image of the electroluminescence emission. Three representative devices were tested, all exhibiting peak EQEs exceeding 15%, with values of 16.6%, 16.2%, and 15.7%, respectively, indicating excellent device stability and reproducibility. d-f, EL spectrum (d), J-V-L (e), and EQE-L-CE (f) characteristics of green nano-QLEDs (42,333 PPI). Inset: Optical image of the electroluminescence emission. Three representative devices were tested, all exhibiting peak EQEs exceeding 13%, with values of 13.9%, 13.8%, and 13.3%, respectively, indicating minimal efficiency reduction. g-i, EL spectrum (g), J-V-L (h), and EQE-L-CE (i) characteristics of green nano-QLEDs (84,667 PPI). Inset: Optical image of the electroluminescence emission. Three representative devices were tested, all exhibiting peak EQEs exceeding 12%, with values of 13.1%, 12.3%, and 12.1%, respectively, indicating minimal efficiency reduction. j-l, EL spectrum (j), J-V-L (k), and EQE-L-CE (l) characteristics of green nano-QLEDs (169,333 PPI). Inset: Optical image of the electroluminescence emission. Three representative devices were tested, all exhibiting peak EQEs exceeding 10%, with values of 11.0%, 10.4%, and 10.0%, respectively, indicating minimal efficiency reduction.
Extended Data Fig. 9 Functional layer structures for red nano-QLEDs.
a, b, Schematic illustration (a) and cross-sectional SEM image (b) showing functional layer structures, in which the emission layer consists of an array of monolayer QDs. For single-layer QD devices, the EML thickness is approximately 15.7 nm. c, d, Schematic illustration (c) and cross-sectional SEM image (d) showing functional layer structures, in which the emission layer consists of an array of multilayer QDs. In multilayer QD configurations, the EML thickness increases to approximately 37.3 nm.
Extended Data Fig. 10 Structural design, optical performance, and mechanical stability of the red flexible nano-QLED device.
a, Schematic diagram of the fabricated ultrahigh-resolution red flexible nano-QLED device: PET/ITO/PEDOT:PSS/TFB/QD-PMMA/ZnMgO/Ag. b, EL optical images of the red flexible nano-QLED device before and after bending. c Fluorescence image of the QD array on a flexible PET substrate. d, EL spectra of the device before and after bending. e, J–V characteristics before and after bending. f, Relationships between EQE and luminance before and after bending. g, L–V characteristics before and after bending. h, Current efficiency as a function of luminance before and after bending. The device was bent at a bending radius of 3.27 mm for 10 and 50 cycles, and its performance was evaluated before and after the bending cycles to assess mechanical stability.
Supplementary information
Supplementary Information
Supplementary Texts 1–4, Figs. 1–24, Tables 1 and 2, and refs. 1–33.
Supplementary Video 1
The active-matrix micro-QLED display demonstrating the video clip ‘Dynamic Footage of Traditional Chinese Buildings’.
Supplementary Video 2
The active-matrix micro-QLED display demonstrating the video clip ‘Phoenix Rebirth’.
Source data
Source Data Fig. 1
GISAXS and pixel size statistical data.
Source Data Fig. 2
Capillary action and morphology data.
Source Data Fig. 3
QD number statistical distributions.
Source Data Fig. 4
Statistics of EL performance for nano-QLEDs.
Source Data Fig. 5
Average EQE and EL area versus pixel density for LEDs.
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Cao, W., Tian, S., Zhong, C. et al. Ultrahigh-resolution nanoimprint patterning of quantum-dot light-emitting diodes via capillary self-assembly. Nat. Photon. (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41566-025-01836-5
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41566-025-01836-5