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%PDF-1.1 %�� 14 0 obj << /Length 15 0 R >> stream 0.8 w 2 J BT /F1 12.8 Tf 38 718.403 TD 0 Tc 0 Tw (Below is the unedited penultimate draft of:)Tj /F2 12.8 Tf 0 -42.4 TD -0.302 Tc ([scanned in by OCR: contains errors])Tj /F3 12.8 Tf 0 13.6 TD -0.155 Tc (Searle, John. R. \(1980\) Minds, brains, and programs. )Tj /F4 12.8 Tf 284.801 0 TD 0 Tc (Behavioral and)Tj 85.6 0 TD (Brain Sciences 3 \(3\): 417-457)Tj /F1 12.8 Tf -370.401 -42.4 TD (This is the unedited penultimate draft of a BBS target article that has been accepted for publication )Tj 0 -13.6 TD (\(Copyright 1980: Cambridge University Press )Tj 265.601 0 TD (/)Tj 28.8 0 TD -0.06 Tc (-- publication date provisional\) and is )Tj -294.401 -13.6 TD -0.032 Tc (currently being circulated for Open Peer Commentary. This preprint is for inspection only, to help )Tj 0 -13.6 TD 0.017 Tc (prospective commentators decide whether or not they wish to prepare a formal commentary. Please do )Tj T* 0 Tc (not prepare a commentary unless you have received the hard copy, invitation, instructions and deadline )Tj T* (information.)Tj 0 0 1 rg 0 0 1 RG 240.801 54.4 TD (U.K.)Tj ET 278.801 631.602 m 302.801 631.602 l S BT 306.801 633.602 TD (U.S.)Tj ET 306.801 631.602 m 328.401 631.602 l S BT 0 g 0 G 38 550.402 TD (For information on becoming a commentator on this or other BBS target)Tj 377.601 0 TD (articles, write to:)Tj 0 0 1 rg 0 0 1 RG -377.601 -13.6 TD (bbs@soton.ac.uk)Tj ET 38 534.802 m 126 534.802 l S BT 0 g 0 G 38 508.002 TD (For information about subscribing or purchasing offprints of the)Tj 335.201 0 TD (published version, with commentaries )Tj -335.201 -13.6 TD (and author's response, write to:)Tj 332.801 0 TD ( \(North America\) or)Tj -144.801 -13.6 TD -0.057 Tc ( \(All other countries\).)Tj 0 0 1 rg 0 0 1 RG -22.4 13.6 TD -0.046 Tc (journals_subscriptions@cup.org)Tj ET 203.601 492.402 m 370.001 492.402 l S BT 38 480.802 TD 0.053 Tc (journals_marketing@cup.cam.ac.uk)Tj ET 38 478.802 m 225.201 478.802 l S 0.502 G 573.202 472.402 m 38 472.402 l S 573.202 471.602 m 38 471.602 l S BT /F3 25.6 Tf 0 g 0 G 38 427.202 TD -0.047 Tc (MINDS, BRAINS, AND PROGRAMS)Tj /F1 12.8 Tf 0 -32 TD -0.1 Tc (John R. Searle)Tj 0 -13.6 TD 0 Tc (Department of Philosophy)Tj T* (University of California)Tj T* -0.048 Tc (Berkeley, California. 94720)Tj 0 0 1 rg 0 0 1 RG T* -0.061 Tc (searle@cogsci.berkeley.edu)Tj ET 38 338.801 m 179.601 338.801 l S BT /F3 19.2 Tf 0 g 0 G 38 306.401 TD 0 Tc (Abstract)Tj /F2 12.8 Tf 0 -30.4 TD -0.31 Tc (This article can be viewed as an attempt to explore the)Tj 264.801 0 TD -0.353 Tc (consequences of two propositions. \(1\) Intentionality in )Tj -264.801 -13.6 TD -0.728 Tc (human)Tj 34.4 0 TD -0.346 Tc (beings \(and animals\) is a product of causal features of the brain I)Tj 312.001 0 TD -0.388 Tc (assume this is an empirical fact about )Tj -346.401 -13.6 TD -0.38 Tc (the actual causal relations)Tj 124.8 0 TD -0.327 Tc (between mental processes and brains It says simply that certain)Tj 306.401 0 TD -0.189 Tc (brain processes are )Tj -431.202 -13.6 TD -0.519 Tc (sufficient for intentionality. \(2\))Tj 144.801 0 TD -0.43 Tc (Instantiating a computer program is never by itself a sufficient)Tj 295.201 0 TD -0.416 Tc (condition of )Tj -440.002 -13.6 TD -0.478 Tc (intentionality The main argument of this paper is)Tj 230.401 0 TD -0.419 Tc (directed at establishing this claim The form of the argument is to)Tj -230.401 -13.6 TD -0.391 Tc (show how a human agent could instantiate the program and still not)Tj 324.001 0 TD -0.414 Tc (have the relevant intentionality. These two )Tj -324.001 -13.6 TD -0.338 Tc (propositions have the)Tj 105.6 0 TD -0.389 Tc (following consequences \(3\) The explanation of how the brain)Tj 295.201 0 TD -0.436 Tc (produces intentionality )Tj -400.802 -13.6 TD -0.38 Tc (cannot be that it does it by instantiating)Tj 188.801 0 TD -0.328 Tc (a computer program. This is a strict logical consequence of 1 and)Tj 316.001 0 TD 0 Tc (2. \(4\) )Tj -504.802 -13.6 TD -0.463 Tc (Any mechanism capable of producing intentionality must have)Tj 297.601 0 TD -0.313 Tc (causal powers equal to those of the brain. This is )Tj -297.601 -13.6 TD -0.23 Tc (meant to be a)Tj 68.8 0 TD -0.352 Tc (trivial consequence of 1. \(5\) Any attempt literally to create)Tj 282.401 0 TD -0.53 Tc (intentionality artificially \(strong AI\) )Tj -351.201 -13.6 TD -0.28 Tc (could not succeed just by)Tj 125.6 0 TD -0.352 Tc (designing programs but would have to duplicate the causal powers of)Tj 334.401 0 TD -0.488 Tc (the human )Tj -460.002 -13.6 TD -0.376 Tc (brain. This follows from 2 and 4.)Tj 0 -28.8 TD -0.387 Tc ("Could a machine think?" On the argument advanced here only a)Tj 312.801 0 TD -0.41 Tc (machine could think, and only very special )Tj -312.801 -13.6 TD -0.419 Tc (kinds of machines,)Tj 92 0 TD -0.429 Tc (namely brains and machines with internal causal powers equivalent)Tj 320.801 0 TD -0.285 Tc (to those of brains And )Tj -412.802 -13.6 TD -0.407 Tc (that is why strong AI has little to tell us)Tj 188.001 0 TD -0.366 Tc (about thinking, since it is not about machines but about programs,)Tj 316.801 0 TD 0 Tc (and )Tj -504.802 -13.6 TD -0.488 Tc (no program by itself is sufficient for thinking.)Tj /F2 7.2 Tf 491.202 697.603 TD 0.266 Tc (7/14/03 6:14 PM)Tj -499.202 0 TD 0.141 Tc (Minds, Brains, and Programs)Tj 514.402 -722.403 TD 0.117 Tc (Page 1 of 19)Tj -514.402 0 TD 0.28 Tc (http://www.bbsonline.org/documents/a/00/00/04/84/bbs00000484-00/bbs.searle2.html)Tj ET endstream endobj 15 0 obj 5476 endobj 4 0 obj << /Type /Page /Parent 5 0 R /Resources <> /ProcSet 2 0 R >> /Contents 14 0 R >> endobj 17 0 obj << /Length 18 0 R >> stream 0.8 w BT /F3 19.2 Tf 38 714.403 TD 0 Tc 0 Tw (Keywords)Tj /F2 12.8 Tf 0 -30.4 TD -0.552 Tc (artificial intelligence, brain, intentionality, mind)Tj ET 0.502 G 573.202 660.403 m 38 660.403 l S 573.202 659.603 m 38 659.603 l S BT 0 G 38 627.202 TD -0.407 Tc (What psychological and philosophical significance should we attach to)Tj 338.401 0 TD -0.379 Tc (recent efforts at computer simulations of )Tj -338.401 -13.6 TD -0.452 Tc (human cognitive capacities?)Tj 136.001 0 TD -0.479 Tc (In answering this question, I find it useful to distinguish what I will)Tj 314.401 0 TD -0.472 Tc (call "strong" AI )Tj -450.402 -13.6 TD -0.49 Tc (from "weak" or "cautious" AI \(Artificial)Tj 190.401 0 TD -0.373 Tc (Intelligence\). According to weak AI, the principal value of the)Tj 299.201 0 TD -0.304 Tc (computer )Tj -489.602 -13.6 TD -0.417 Tc (in the study of the mind is that it gives us a very powerful)Tj 273.601 0 TD -0.311 Tc (tool. For example, it enables us to formulate and test )Tj -273.601 -13.6 TD -0.355 Tc (hypotheses in a)Tj 76.8 0 TD -0.325 Tc (more rigorous and precise fashion. But according to strong AI, the)Tj 321.601 0 TD -0.354 Tc (computer is not merely a )Tj -398.402 -13.6 TD -0.374 Tc (tool in the study of the mind; rather, the)Tj 191.201 0 TD -0.362 Tc (appropriately programmed computer really is a mind, in the sense that)Tj -191.201 -13.6 TD -0.376 Tc (computers given the right programs can be literally said to understand)Tj 335.201 0 TD -0.327 Tc (and have other cognitive states. In strong )Tj -335.201 -13.6 TD -0.271 Tc (AI, because the programmed)Tj 144.001 0 TD -0.309 Tc (computer has cognitive states, the programs are not mere tools that)Tj 324.801 0 TD -0.272 Tc (enable us to )Tj -468.802 -13.6 TD -0.34 Tc (test psychological explanations; rather, the programs are)Tj 272.801 0 TD -0.415 Tc (themselves the explanations.)Tj -272.801 -28.8 TD -0.292 Tc (I have no objection to the claims of weak AI, at least as far as this)Tj 320.001 0 TD -0.377 Tc (article is concerned. My discussion here will )Tj -320.001 -13.6 TD -0.304 Tc (be directed at the claims)Tj 120 0 TD -0.373 Tc (I have defined as those of strong AI, specifically the claim that the)Tj 317.601 0 TD -0.303 Tc (appropriately )Tj -437.602 -13.6 TD -0.392 Tc (programmed computer literally has cognitive states and)Tj 266.401 0 TD -0.408 Tc (that the programs thereby explain human cognition. )Tj -266.401 -13.6 TD -0.318 Tc (When I hereafter)Tj 84.8 0 TD -0.305 Tc (refer to AI, I have in mind the strong version, as expressed by these)Tj 328.001 0 TD -0.419 Tc (two claims.)Tj -412.802 -28.8 TD -0.339 Tc (I will consider the work of Roger Schank and his colleagues at Yale)Tj 328.801 0 TD -0.211 Tc (\(Schank & Abelson 1977\), because I am )Tj -328.801 -13.6 TD -0.497 Tc (more familiar with it than I am)Tj 145.601 0 TD -0.37 Tc (with any other similar claims, and because it provides a very clear)Tj 316.801 0 TD -0.377 Tc (example of the )Tj -462.402 -13.6 TD -0.392 Tc (sort of work I wish to examine. But nothing that follows)Tj 269.601 0 TD -0.276 Tc (depends upon the details of Schank's programs. The )Tj -269.601 -13.6 TD -0.421 Tc (same arguments would)Tj 112.8 0 TD -0.315 Tc (apply to Winograd's SHRDLU \(Winograd 1973\), Weizenbaum's ELIZA)Tj 354.401 0 TD -0.448 Tc (\(Weizenbaum )Tj -467.202 -13.6 TD (1965\), and indeed any Turing machine simulation of human)Tj 285.601 0 TD -0.437 Tc (mental phenomena.)Tj -285.601 -28.8 TD -0.362 Tc (Very briefly, and leaving out the various details, one can describe)Tj 315.201 0 TD -0.356 Tc (Schank's program as follows: the aim of the )Tj -315.201 -13.6 TD -0.402 Tc (program is to simulate the)Tj 126.4 0 TD -0.393 Tc (human ability to understand stories. It is characteristic of human)Tj 306.401 0 TD -0.285 Tc (beings' story-)Tj -432.802 -13.6 TD -0.354 Tc (understanding capacity that they can answer questions)Tj 262.401 0 TD -0.391 Tc (about the story even though the information that they )Tj -262.401 -13.6 TD -0.398 Tc (give was never)Tj 74.4 0 TD -0.348 Tc (explicitly stated in the story. Thus, for example, suppose you are)Tj 311.201 0 TD -0.546 Tc (given the following story:)Tj -385.601 -28.8 TD -0.289 Tc (-A man went into a restaurant and ordered a hamburger. When the)Tj 324.801 0 TD -0.299 Tc (hamburger arrived it was burned to a crisp, )Tj -324.801 -13.6 TD -0.324 Tc (and the man stormed out of)Tj 135.201 0 TD -0.422 Tc (the restaurant angrily, without paying for the hamburger or leaving a)Tj 325.601 0 TD -0.36 Tc (tip." Now, if )Tj -460.802 -13.6 TD -0.355 Tc (you are asked -Did the man eat the hamburger?" you will)Tj 276.801 0 TD -0.348 Tc (presumably answer, ' No, he did not.' Similarly, if )Tj -276.801 -13.6 TD -0.406 Tc (you are given the)Tj 84.8 0 TD -0.331 Tc (following story: '-A man went into a restaurant and ordered a)Tj 296.001 0 TD -0.398 Tc (hamburger; when the )Tj -380.801 -13.6 TD -0.331 Tc (hamburger came he was very pleased with it; and as)Tj 253.601 0 TD -0.333 Tc (he left the restaurant he gave the waitress a large tip )Tj -253.601 -13.6 TD -0.394 Tc (before paying)Tj 68.8 0 TD -0.33 Tc (his bill," and you are asked the question, -Did the man eat the)Tj 297.601 0 TD -0.404 Tc (hamburger?,-' you will presumably )Tj -366.401 -13.6 TD -0.281 Tc (answer, -Yes, he ate the hamburger.")Tj 182.401 0 TD -0.348 Tc (Now Schank's machines can similarly answer questions about restaurants)Tj -182.401 -13.6 TD -0.345 Tc (in this fashion. To do this, they have a -representation" of the sort)Tj 315.201 0 TD -0.435 Tc (of information that human beings have about )Tj -315.201 -13.6 TD -0.35 Tc (restaurants, which enables)Tj 128.8 0 TD -0.301 Tc (them to answer such questions as those above, given these sorts of)Tj 323.201 0 TD -0.29 Tc (stories. When the )Tj -452.002 -13.6 TD -0.366 Tc (machine is given the story and then asked the)Tj 219.201 0 TD -0.364 Tc (question, the machine will print out answers of the sort that we )Tj -219.201 -13.6 TD -0.48 Tc (would)Tj 32.8 0 TD -0.407 Tc (expect human beings to give if told similar stories. Partisans of)Tj 299.201 0 TD (strong AI claim that in this question and )Tj -332.001 -13.6 TD -0.346 Tc (answer sequence the machine)Tj 145.601 0 TD -0.508 Tc (is not only simulating a human ability but also)Tj -131.201 -28.8 TD 0 Tc (1.)Tj 17.6 0 TD -0.35 Tc (that the machine can literally be said to understand the story and)Tj 309.601 0 TD -0.28 Tc (provide the answers to questions, and)Tj /F2 7.2 Tf 149.601 665.603 TD 0.266 Tc (7/14/03 6:14 PM)Tj -499.202 0 TD 0.141 Tc (Minds, Brains, and Programs)Tj 514.402 -722.403 TD 0.117 Tc (Page 2 of 19)Tj -514.402 0 TD 0.28 Tc (http://www.bbsonline.org/documents/a/00/00/04/84/bbs00000484-00/bbs.searle2.html)Tj ET endstream endobj 18 0 obj 6719 endobj 16 0 obj << /Type /Page /Parent 5 0 R /Resources <> /ProcSet 2 0 R >> /Contents 17 0 R >> endobj 20 0 obj << /Length 21 0 R >> stream 0.8 w BT /F2 12.8 Tf 52.4 729.603 TD 0 Tc 0 Tw (2.)Tj 17.6 0 TD -0.413 Tc (that what the machine and its program do explains the human ability)Tj 326.401 0 TD -0.265 Tc (to understand the story and answer )Tj -326.401 -13.6 TD -0.332 Tc (questions about it.)Tj -32 -28.8 TD -0.281 Tc (Both claims seem to me to be totally unsupported by Schank's' work, as)Tj 350.401 0 TD -0.41 Tc (I will attempt to show in what follows.)Tj -350.401 -28.8 TD -0.336 Tc (One way to test any theory of the mind is to ask oneself what it would)Tj 338.401 0 TD -0.417 Tc (be like if my mind actually worked on )Tj -338.401 -13.6 TD -0.375 Tc (the principles that the theory)Tj 138.401 0 TD -0.321 Tc (says all minds work on. Let us apply this test to the Schank program)Tj 331.201 0 TD -0.444 Tc (with the )Tj -469.602 -13.6 TD -0.36 Tc (following Gedankenexperiment. Suppose that I'm locked in a)Tj 296.001 0 TD -0.379 Tc (room and given a large batch of Chinese writing. )Tj -296.001 -13.6 TD -0.321 Tc (Suppose furthermore)Tj 104.8 0 TD -0.294 Tc (\(as is indeed the case\) that I know no Chinese, either written or)Tj 307.201 0 TD -0.241 Tc (spoken, and that I'm not )Tj -412.002 -13.6 TD -0.377 Tc (even confident that I could recognize Chinese)Tj 220.801 0 TD -0.415 Tc (writing as Chinese writing distinct from, say, Japanese writing or)Tj -220.801 -13.6 TD -0.448 Tc (meaningless squiggles. To me, Chinese writing is just so many)Tj 297.601 0 TD -0.506 Tc (meaningless squiggles. )Tj -297.601 -28.8 TD -0.361 Tc (Now suppose further that after this first batch of Chinese writing I am)Tj 335.201 0 TD -0.311 Tc (given a second batch of Chinese script )Tj -335.201 -13.6 TD -0.346 Tc (together with a set of rules for)Tj 146.401 0 TD -0.35 Tc (correlating the second batch with the first batch. The rules are in)Tj 309.601 0 TD -0.444 Tc (English, and I )Tj -456.002 -13.6 TD -0.343 Tc (understand these rules as well as any other native)Tj 238.401 0 TD -0.31 Tc (speaker of English. They enable me to correlate one set of )Tj -238.401 -13.6 TD -0.62 Tc (formal)Tj 33.6 0 TD -0.397 Tc (symbols with another set of formal symbols, and all that 'formal' means)Tj 340.801 0 TD -0.376 Tc (here is that I can identify the )Tj -374.401 -13.6 TD -0.352 Tc (symbols entirely by their shapes. Now)Tj 186.401 0 TD -0.335 Tc (suppose also that I am given a third batch of Chinese symbols together)Tj -186.401 -13.6 TD -0.412 Tc (with some instructions, again in English, that enable me to correlate)Tj 322.401 0 TD -0.399 Tc (elements of this third batch with the first two )Tj -322.401 -13.6 TD -0.22 Tc (batches, and these)Tj 92 0 TD -0.381 Tc (rules instruct me how to give back certain Chinese symbols with certain)Tj 344.801 0 TD -0.28 Tc (sorts of shapes in )Tj -436.802 -13.6 TD -0.318 Tc (response to certain sorts of shapes given me in the)Tj 244.001 0 TD -0.347 Tc (third batch. Unknown to me, the people who are giving me )Tj -244.001 -13.6 TD -0.413 Tc (all of these)Tj 54.4 0 TD -0.353 Tc (symbols call the first batch "a script," they call the second batch a)Tj 315.201 0 TD -0.351 Tc ("story. ' and they call the third )Tj -369.601 -13.6 TD -0.371 Tc (batch "questions." Furthermore, they)Tj 178.401 0 TD -0.342 Tc (call the symbols I give them back in response to the third batch)Tj 304.801 0 TD -0.362 Tc ("answers )Tj -483.202 -13.6 TD -0.396 Tc (to the questions." and the set of rules in English that they)Tj 271.201 0 TD -0.417 Tc (gave me, they call "the program.")Tj -271.201 -28.8 TD -0.34 Tc (Now just to complicate the story a little, imagine that these people)Tj 319.201 0 TD -0.457 Tc (also give me stories in English, which I )Tj -319.201 -13.6 TD -0.296 Tc (understand, and they then ask)Tj 146.401 0 TD -0.365 Tc (me questions in English about these stories, and I give them back)Tj 313.601 0 TD -0.363 Tc (answers in )Tj -460.002 -13.6 TD -0.316 Tc (English. Suppose also that after a while I get so good at)Tj 269.601 0 TD -0.494 Tc (following the instructions for manipulating the Chinese )Tj -269.601 -13.6 TD -0.396 Tc (symbols and)Tj 63.2 0 TD -0.345 Tc (the programmers get so good at writing the programs that from the)Tj 322.401 0 TD -0.388 Tc (external point of view that is, )Tj -385.601 -13.6 TD -0.378 Tc (from the point of view of somebody)Tj 175.201 0 TD -0.314 Tc (outside the room in which I am locked -- my answers to the questions)Tj 338.401 0 TD 0 Tc (are )Tj -513.602 -13.6 TD -0.406 Tc (absolutely indistinguishable from those of native Chinese speakers.)Tj 320.801 0 TD -0.33 Tc (Nobody just looking at my answers can tell )Tj -320.801 -13.6 TD -0.183 Tc (that I don't speak a word of)Tj 137.601 0 TD -0.355 Tc (Chinese.)Tj -137.601 -28.8 TD -0.318 Tc (Let us also suppose that my answers to the English questions are, as)Tj 329.601 0 TD -0.408 Tc (they no doubt would be, indistinguishable )Tj -329.601 -13.6 TD -0.375 Tc (from those of other native)Tj 126.4 0 TD -0.395 Tc (English speakers, for the simple reason that I am a native English)Tj 312.001 0 TD -0.181 Tc (speaker. From the )Tj -438.402 -13.6 TD -0.373 Tc (external point of view -- from the point of view of)Tj 240.801 0 TD -0.308 Tc (someone reading my "answers" -- the answers to the )Tj -240.801 -13.6 TD -0.346 Tc (Chinese questions and)Tj 110.4 0 TD -0.391 Tc (the English questions are equally good. But in the Chinese case, unlike)Tj 338.401 0 TD -0.399 Tc (the English case, )Tj -448.802 -13.6 TD -0.371 Tc (I produce the answers by manipulating uninterpreted)Tj 254.401 0 TD -0.321 Tc (formal symbols. As far as the Chinese is concerned, I )Tj -254.401 -13.6 TD -0.484 Tc (simply behave)Tj 71.2 0 TD -0.382 Tc (like a computer; I perform computational operations on formally)Tj 310.401 0 TD -0.325 Tc (specified elements. For the )Tj -381.601 -13.6 TD -0.346 Tc (purposes of the Chinese, I am simply an)Tj 195.201 0 TD -0.392 Tc (instantiation of the computer program.)Tj -195.201 -28.8 TD -0.31 Tc (Now the claims made by strong AI are that the programmed computer)Tj 342.401 0 TD -0.29 Tc (understands the stories and that the )Tj -342.401 -13.6 TD -0.384 Tc (program in some sense explains)Tj 155.201 0 TD (human understanding. But we are now in a position to examine these)Tj 331.201 0 TD -0.577 Tc (claims in )Tj -486.402 -13.6 TD -0.471 Tc (light of our thought experiment.)Tj 0 -28.8 TD -0.361 Tc (1 As regards the first claim, it seems to me quite obvious in the)Tj 303.201 0 TD -0.273 Tc (example that I do not understand a word of the )Tj -303.201 -13.6 TD -0.308 Tc (Chinese stories. I have)Tj 112 0 TD -0.412 Tc (inputs and outputs that are indistinguishable from those of the native)Tj 325.601 0 TD -0.207 Tc (Chinese speaker, )Tj -437.602 -13.6 TD -0.352 Tc (and I can have any formal program you like, but I)Tj 240.801 0 TD -0.322 Tc (still understand nothing. For the same reasons, Schank's )Tj -240.801 -13.6 TD -0.342 Tc (computer)Tj 48.8 0 TD -0.397 Tc (understands nothing of any stories. whether in Chinese. English. or)Tj 320.001 0 TD -0.363 Tc (whatever. since in the Chinese )Tj -368.801 -13.6 TD -0.282 Tc (case the computer is me. and in cases)Tj 184.001 0 TD -0.342 Tc (where the computer is not me, the computer has nothing more than I )Tj /F2 7.2 Tf 307.201 688.803 TD 0.266 Tc (7/14/03 6:14 PM)Tj -499.202 0 TD 0.141 Tc (Minds, Brains, and Programs)Tj 514.402 -722.403 TD 0.117 Tc (Page 3 of 19)Tj -514.402 0 TD 0.28 Tc (http://www.bbsonline.org/documents/a/00/00/04/84/bbs00000484-00/bbs.searle2.html)Tj ET endstream endobj 21 0 obj 7443 endobj 19 0 obj << /Type /Page /Parent 5 0 R /Resources <> /ProcSet 2 0 R >> /Contents 20 0 R >> endobj 23 0 obj << /Length 24 0 R >> stream 0.8 w BT /F2 12.8 Tf 38 729.603 TD -0.441 Tc 0 Tw (have)Tj 25.6 0 TD -0.349 Tc (in the case where I understand nothing.)Tj -25.6 -28.8 TD -0.343 Tc (2. As regards the second claim, that the program explains human)Tj 313.601 0 TD -0.307 Tc (understanding, we can see that the computer )Tj -313.601 -13.6 TD -0.286 Tc (and its program do not)Tj 112.8 0 TD -0.404 Tc (provide sufficient conditions of understanding since the computer and)Tj 333.601 0 TD -0.264 Tc (the program are )Tj -446.402 -13.6 TD -0.4 Tc (functioning, and there is no understanding. But does it)Tj 259.201 0 TD -0.366 Tc (even provide a necessary condition or a significant )Tj -259.201 -13.6 TD -0.408 Tc (contribution to)Tj 72.8 0 TD -0.336 Tc (understanding? One of the claims made by the supporters of strong AI is)Tj 351.201 0 TD -0.319 Tc (that when I understand )Tj -424.002 -13.6 TD -0.43 Tc (a story in English, what I am doing is exactly)Tj 215.201 0 TD -0.234 Tc (the same -- or perhaps more of the same -- as what I was doing in)Tj -215.201 -13.6 TD -0.474 Tc (manipulating the Chinese symbols. It is simply more formal symbol)Tj 320.801 0 TD -0.464 Tc (manipulation that distinguishes the case in )Tj -320.801 -13.6 TD -0.392 Tc (English, where I do)Tj 96 0 TD -0.293 Tc (understand, from the case in Chinese, where I don't. I have not)Tj 304.801 0 TD -0.324 Tc (demonstrated that this )Tj -400.802 -13.6 TD -0.391 Tc (claim is false, but it would certainly appear an)Tj 220.801 0 TD -0.459 Tc (incredible claim in the example. Such plausibility as the claim has)Tj -220.801 -13.6 TD -0.358 Tc (derives from the supposition that we can construct a program that will)Tj 336.801 0 TD -0.318 Tc (have the same inputs and outputs as )Tj -336.801 -13.6 TD -0.316 Tc (native speakers, and in addition we)Tj 172.001 0 TD -0.311 Tc (assume that speakers have some level of description where they are also)Tj -172.001 -13.6 TD -0.385 Tc (instantiations of a program. )Tj 0 -28.8 TD -0.317 Tc (On the basis of these two assumptions we assume that even if Schank's)Tj 344.801 0 TD -0.32 Tc (program isn't the whole story about )Tj -344.801 -13.6 TD -0.36 Tc (understanding, it may be part of)Tj 155.201 0 TD -0.356 Tc (the story. Well, I suppose that is an empirical possibility, but not)Tj 309.601 0 TD -0.45 Tc (the slightest )Tj -464.802 -13.6 TD -0.327 Tc (reason has so far been given to believe that it is true,)Tj 253.601 0 TD -0.37 Tc (since what is suggested though certainly not demonstrated )Tj -253.601 -13.6 TD 0 Tc (-- by the)Tj 45.6 0 TD -0.412 Tc (example is that the computer program is simply irrelevant to my)Tj 306.401 0 TD -0.352 Tc (understanding of the story. In the )Tj -352.001 -13.6 TD -0.366 Tc (Chinese case I have everything that)Tj 172.001 0 TD -0.408 Tc (artificial intelligence can put into me by way of a program, and I)Tj 307.201 0 TD -0.306 Tc (understand )Tj -479.202 -13.6 TD -0.432 Tc (nothing; in the English case I understand everything, and)Tj 270.401 0 TD -0.283 Tc (there is so far no reason at all to suppose that my )Tj -270.401 -13.6 TD -0.422 Tc (understanding has)Tj 88.8 0 TD -0.392 Tc (anything to do with computer programs, that is, with computational)Tj 323.201 0 TD -0.325 Tc (operations on purely )Tj -412.002 -13.6 TD -0.424 Tc (formally specified elements. As long as the)Tj 206.401 0 TD -0.384 Tc (program is defined in terms of computational operations on purely)Tj -206.401 -13.6 TD -0.401 Tc (formally defined elements, what the example suggests is that these by)Tj 332.801 0 TD -0.42 Tc (themselves have no interesting connection )Tj -332.801 -13.6 TD -0.414 Tc (with understanding. They are)Tj 141.601 0 TD -0.406 Tc (certainly not sufficient conditions, and not the slightest reason has)Tj 313.601 0 TD -0.354 Tc (been given to )Tj -455.202 -13.6 TD -0.291 Tc (suppose that they are necessary conditions or even that)Tj 268.001 0 TD -0.432 Tc (they make a significant contribution to understanding.)Tj -268.001 -28.8 TD -0.389 Tc (Notice that the force of the argument is not simply that different)Tj 305.601 0 TD -0.366 Tc (machines can have the same input and output )Tj -305.601 -13.6 TD -0.443 Tc (while operating on)Tj 91.2 0 TD -0.367 Tc (different formal principles -- that is not the point at all. Rather,)Tj 299.201 0 TD -0.423 Tc (whatever purely formal )Tj -390.401 -13.6 TD (principles you put into the computer, they will)Tj 220.801 0 TD -0.411 Tc (not be sufficient for understanding, since a human will be able to)Tj -220.801 -13.6 TD -0.433 Tc (follow the formal principles without understanding anything. No reason)Tj 340.801 0 TD -0.245 Tc (whatever has been offered to suppose )Tj -340.801 -13.6 TD -0.333 Tc (that such principles are necessary)Tj 163.201 0 TD -0.298 Tc (or even contributory, since no reason has been given to suppose that)Tj 332.001 0 TD -0.341 Tc (when I )Tj -495.202 -13.6 TD -0.418 Tc (understand English I am operating with any formal program at)Tj 298.401 0 TD -0.598 Tc (all.)Tj -298.401 -28.8 TD -0.377 Tc (Well, then, what is it that I have in the case of the English sentences)Tj 324.801 0 TD -0.281 Tc (that I do not have in the case of the )Tj -324.801 -13.6 TD -0.333 Tc (Chinese sentences? The obvious)Tj 159.201 0 TD -0.351 Tc (answer is that I know what the former mean, while I haven't the)Tj 307.201 0 TD -0.385 Tc (faintest idea )Tj -466.402 -13.6 TD -0.346 Tc (what the latter mean. But in what does this consist and)Tj 263.201 0 TD -0.37 Tc (why couldn't we give it to a machine, whatever it is? I )Tj -263.201 -13.6 TD -0.488 Tc (will return to)Tj 63.2 0 TD -0.384 Tc (this question later, but first I want to continue with the example.)Tj -63.2 -28.8 TD -0.298 Tc (I have had the occasions to present this example to several workers in)Tj 339.201 0 TD -0.514 Tc (artificial intelligence, and, interestingly, )Tj -339.201 -13.6 TD -0.254 Tc (they do not seem to agree)Tj 128 0 TD -0.338 Tc (on what the proper reply to it is. I get a surprising variety of)Tj 288.001 0 TD -0.354 Tc (replies, and in what )Tj -416.002 -13.6 TD -0.405 Tc (follows I will consider the most common of these)Tj 237.601 0 TD -0.437 Tc (\(specified along with their geographic origins\).)Tj -237.601 -28.8 TD -0.375 Tc (But first I want to block some common misunderstandings about)Tj 312.001 0 TD -0.474 Tc ("understanding": in many of these discussions )Tj -312.001 -13.6 TD -0.398 Tc (one finds a lot of fancy)Tj 112 0 TD -0.351 Tc (footwork about the word "understanding." My critics point out that)Tj 323.201 0 TD -0.323 Tc (there are many )Tj -435.202 -13.6 TD -0.429 Tc (different degrees of understanding; that "understanding")Tj 267.201 0 TD -0.277 Tc (is not a simple two-place predicate; that there are even )Tj -267.201 -13.6 TD -0.467 Tc (different kinds)Tj 71.2 0 TD -0.388 Tc (and levels of understanding, and often the law of excluded middle)Tj 316.001 0 TD -0.28 Tc (doesn-t even apply in a )Tj -387.201 -13.6 TD -0.36 Tc (straightforward way to statements of the form)Tj 221.601 0 TD -0.362 Tc ("x understands y; that in many cases it is a matter for decision and)Tj -221.601 -13.6 TD -0.33 Tc (not a simple matter of fact whether x understands y; and so on. To all)Tj 335.201 0 TD -0.291 Tc (of these points I want to say: of course, of )Tj -335.201 -13.6 TD -0.329 Tc (course. But they have)Tj 107.2 0 TD -0.345 Tc (nothing to do with the points at issue. There are clear cases in which)Tj 328.801 0 TD -0.453 Tc ("understanding' )Tj /F2 7.2 Tf 55.2 687.203 TD 0.266 Tc (7/14/03 6:14 PM)Tj -499.202 0 TD 0.141 Tc (Minds, Brains, and Programs)Tj 514.402 -722.403 TD 0.117 Tc (Page 4 of 19)Tj -514.402 0 TD 0.28 Tc (http://www.bbsonline.org/documents/a/00/00/04/84/bbs00000484-00/bbs.searle2.html)Tj ET endstream endobj 24 0 obj 7692 endobj 22 0 obj << /Type /Page /Parent 5 0 R /Resources <> /ProcSet 2 0 R >> /Contents 23 0 R >> endobj 26 0 obj << /Length 27 0 R >> stream 0.8 w BT /F2 12.8 Tf 38 729.603 TD -0.374 Tc 0 Tw (literally applies and clear cases in which it does not)Tj 246.401 0 TD -0.268 Tc (apply; and these two sorts of cases are all I need for this )Tj -246.401 -13.6 TD -0.434 Tc (argument 2)Tj 56.8 0 TD -0.323 Tc (I understand stories in English; to a lesser degree I can understand)Tj 320.001 0 TD -0.348 Tc (stories in French; to a still lesser )Tj -376.801 -13.6 TD (degree, stories in German; and in)Tj 161.601 0 TD -0.337 Tc (Chinese, not at all. My car and my adding machine, on the other hand,)Tj -161.601 -13.6 TD -0.396 Tc (understand nothing: they are not in that line of business. We often)Tj 314.401 0 TD -0.418 Tc (attribute "under standing" and other cognitive )Tj -314.401 -13.6 TD -0.264 Tc (predicates by metaphor)Tj 116.8 0 TD -0.352 Tc (and analogy to cars, adding machines, and other artifacts, but nothing)Tj 334.401 0 TD -0.286 Tc (is proved by such )Tj -451.202 -13.6 TD -0.29 Tc (attributions. We say, "The door knows when to open)Tj 258.401 0 TD -0.391 Tc (because of its photoelectric cell," "The adding machine )Tj -258.401 -13.6 TD -0.293 Tc (knows how\))Tj 63.2 0 TD -0.287 Tc (\(understands how to, is able\) to do addition and subtraction but not)Tj 326.401 0 TD -0.442 Tc (division," and "The thermostat )Tj -389.601 -13.6 TD -0.336 Tc (perceives chances in the temperature.")Tj 0 -28.8 TD -0.357 Tc (The reason we make these attributions is quite interesting, and it has)Tj 328.001 0 TD -0.332 Tc (to do with the fact that in artifacts we )Tj -328.001 -13.6 TD -0.316 Tc (extend our own)Tj 78.4 0 TD -0.327 Tc (intentionality;3 our tools are extensions of our purposes, and so we)Tj 324.001 0 TD -0.406 Tc (find it natural to make )Tj -402.402 -13.6 TD -0.461 Tc (metaphorical attributions of intentionality to)Tj 208.801 0 TD -0.365 Tc (them; but I take it no philosophical ice is cut by such examples. The)Tj -208.801 -13.6 TD -0.413 Tc (sense in which an automatic door "understands instructions" from its)Tj 327.201 0 TD -0.364 Tc (photoelectric cell is not at all the sense in )Tj -327.201 -13.6 TD -0.384 Tc (which I understand)Tj 94.4 0 TD -0.373 Tc (English. If the sense in which Schank's programmed computers understand)Tj 360.801 0 TD -0.323 Tc (stories is )Tj -455.202 -13.6 TD -0.294 Tc (supposed to be the metaphorical sense in which the door)Tj 276.001 0 TD -0.321 Tc (understands, and not the sense in which I understand )Tj -276.001 -13.6 TD -0.508 Tc (English, the issue)Tj 84 0 TD -0.339 Tc (would not be worth discussing. But Newell and Simon \(1963\) write that)Tj 348.801 0 TD -0.428 Tc (the kind of cognition )Tj -432.802 -13.6 TD -0.375 Tc (they claim for computers is exactly the same as)Tj 228.001 0 TD -0.413 Tc (for human beings. I like the straightforwardness of this claim, )Tj -228.001 -13.6 TD -0.399 Tc (and it)Tj 29.6 0 TD -0.421 Tc (is the sort of claim I will be considering. I will argue that in the)Tj 298.401 0 TD -0.351 Tc (literal sense the programmed computer )Tj -328.001 -13.6 TD -0.281 Tc (understands what the car and the)Tj 161.601 0 TD -0.418 Tc (adding machine understand, namely, exactly nothing. The computer)Tj -161.601 -13.6 TD -0.408 Tc (understanding is not just \(like my understanding of German\) partial or)Tj 334.401 0 TD -0.404 Tc (incomplete; it is zero.)Tj -334.401 -28.8 TD -0.303 Tc (Now to the replies:)Tj 0 -28.8 TD -0.419 Tc (I. The systems reply \(Berkeley\). "While it is true that the individual)Tj 320.001 0 TD -0.268 Tc (person who is locked in the room does not )Tj -320.001 -13.6 TD -0.298 Tc (understand the story, the)Tj 121.6 0 TD -0.326 Tc (fact is that he is merely part of a whole system, and the system does)Tj 328.001 0 TD -0.307 Tc (understand the )Tj -449.602 -13.6 TD -0.38 Tc (story. The person has a large ledger in front of him in)Tj 256.001 0 TD -0.301 Tc (which are written the rules, he has a lot of scratch paper )Tj -256.001 -13.6 TD -0.394 Tc (and pencils)Tj 56.8 0 TD -0.318 Tc (for doing calculations, he has 'data banks' of sets of Chinese symbols.)Tj 336.801 0 TD -0.335 Tc (Now, understanding is not )Tj -393.602 -13.6 TD -0.381 Tc (being ascribed to the mere individual; rather)Tj 212.801 0 TD -0.372 Tc (it is being ascribed to this whole system of which he is a part.")Tj -212.801 -28.8 TD -0.405 Tc (My response to the systems theory is quite simple: let the individual)Tj 324.001 0 TD -0.438 Tc (internalize all of these elements of the )Tj -324.001 -13.6 TD -0.399 Tc (system. He memorizes the rules)Tj 154.401 0 TD -0.31 Tc (in the ledger and the data banks of Chinese symbols, and he does all)Tj 331.201 0 TD (the )Tj -485.602 -13.6 TD -0.421 Tc (calculations in his head. The individual then incorporates the)Tj 288.801 0 TD -0.395 Tc (entire system. There isn't anything at all to the )Tj -288.801 -13.6 TD -0.289 Tc (system that he does)Tj 97.6 0 TD -0.252 Tc (not encompass. We can even get rid of the room and suppose he works)Tj 349.601 0 TD -0.311 Tc (outdoors. All the )Tj -447.202 -13.6 TD -0.335 Tc (same, he understands nothing of the Chinese, and a)Tj 248.801 0 TD -0.364 Tc (fortiori neither does the system, because there isn't anything )Tj -248.801 -13.6 TD -0.532 Tc (in the)Tj 28.8 0 TD -0.36 Tc (system that isn't in him. If he doesn't understand, then there is no)Tj 310.401 0 TD -0.335 Tc (way the system could understand )Tj -339.201 -13.6 TD -0.283 Tc (because the system is just a part of)Tj 170.401 0 TD -0.778 Tc (him.)Tj -170.401 -28.8 TD -0.351 Tc (Actually I feel somewhat embarrassed to give even this answer to the)Tj 334.401 0 TD -0.294 Tc (systems theory because the theory seems )Tj -334.401 -13.6 TD -0.355 Tc (to me so implausible to start)Tj 137.601 0 TD -0.324 Tc (with. The idea is that while a person doesn't understand Chinese,)Tj 313.601 0 TD (somehow the )Tj -451.202 -13.6 TD -0.351 Tc (conjunction of that person and bits of paper might)Tj 241.601 0 TD -0.348 Tc (understand Chinese. It is not easy for me to imagine how )Tj -241.601 -13.6 TD -0.322 Tc (someone who)Tj 70.4 0 TD -0.394 Tc (was not in the grip of an ideology would find the idea at all)Tj 282.401 0 TD -0.418 Tc (plausible. Still, I think many people )Tj -352.801 -13.6 TD -0.352 Tc (who are committed to the ideology)Tj 170.401 0 TD -0.433 Tc (of strong AI will in the end be inclined to say something very much)Tj 320.801 0 TD -0.477 Tc (like this; )Tj -491.202 -13.6 TD -0.335 Tc (so let us pursue it a bit further. According to one version)Tj 272.801 0 TD -0.462 Tc (of this view, while the man in the internalized systems )Tj -272.801 -13.6 TD -0.312 Tc (example doesn't)Tj 80.8 0 TD -0.295 Tc (understand Chinese in the sense that a native Chinese speaker does)Tj 326.401 0 TD -0.274 Tc (\(because, for example, he )Tj -407.202 -13.6 TD -0.251 Tc (doesn't know that the story refers to)Tj 176.801 0 TD -0.373 Tc (restaurants and hamburgers, etc.\), still "the man as a formal symbol)Tj -176.801 -13.6 TD -0.403 Tc (manipulation system" really does understand Chinese. The subsystem of)Tj 346.401 0 TD -0.425 Tc (the man that is the formal symbol )Tj -346.401 -13.6 TD -0.467 Tc (manipulation system for Chinese)Tj 157.601 0 TD -0.403 Tc (should not be confused with the subsystem for English.)Tj -157.601 -28.8 TD -0.362 Tc (So there are really two subsystems in the man; one understands English,)Tj 347.201 0 TD -0.321 Tc (the other Chinese, and "it's just that the )Tj /F2 7.2 Tf 144.001 687.203 TD 0.266 Tc (7/14/03 6:14 PM)Tj -499.202 0 TD 0.141 Tc (Minds, Brains, and Programs)Tj 514.402 -722.403 TD 0.117 Tc (Page 5 of 19)Tj -514.402 0 TD 0.28 Tc (http://www.bbsonline.org/documents/a/00/00/04/84/bbs00000484-00/bbs.searle2.html)Tj ET endstream endobj 27 0 obj 7645 endobj 25 0 obj << /Type /Page /Parent 5 0 R /Resources <> /ProcSet 2 0 R >> /Contents 26 0 R >> endobj 29 0 obj << /Length 30 0 R >> stream 0.8 w BT /F2 12.8 Tf 38 729.603 TD -0.389 Tc 0 Tw (two systems have little to)Tj 123.2 0 TD -0.349 Tc (do with each other." But, I want to reply, not only do they have little)Tj 328.801 0 TD -0.26 Tc (to do with each )Tj -452.002 -13.6 TD -0.342 Tc (other, they are not even remotely alike. The subsystem)Tj 264.801 0 TD -0.425 Tc (that understands English \(assuming we allow ourselves )Tj -264.801 -13.6 TD -0.427 Tc (to talk in this)Tj 64 0 TD -0.335 Tc (jargon of "subsystems" for a moment\) knows that the stories are about)Tj 340.001 0 TD -0.33 Tc (restaurants and eating )Tj -404.002 -13.6 TD -0.319 Tc (hamburgers, he knows that he is being asked)Tj 218.401 0 TD -0.324 Tc (questions about restaurants and that he is answering questions as )Tj -218.401 -13.6 TD 0 Tc (best)Tj 23.2 0 TD -0.364 Tc (he can by making various inferences from the content of the story, and)Tj 339.201 0 TD -0.317 Tc (so on. But the Chinese system )Tj -362.401 -13.6 TD -0.384 Tc (knows none of this. Whereas the English)Tj 197.601 0 TD -0.364 Tc (subsystem knows that "hamburgers" refers to hamburgers, the Chinese)Tj -197.601 -13.6 TD -0.471 Tc (subsystem knows only that "squiggle squiggle" is followed by "squoggle)Tj 343.201 0 TD -0.408 Tc (squoggle." All he knows is that various )Tj -343.201 -13.6 TD -0.436 Tc (formal symbols are being)Tj 123.2 0 TD -0.355 Tc (introduced at one end and manipulated according to rules written in)Tj 325.601 0 TD -0.415 Tc (English, and other )Tj -448.802 -13.6 TD -0.317 Tc (symbols are going out at the other end. )Tj 0 -28.8 TD -0.394 Tc (The whole point of the original example was to argue that such symbol)Tj 340.001 0 TD -0.443 Tc (manipulation by itself couldn't be )Tj -340.001 -13.6 TD -0.473 Tc (sufficient for understanding Chinese)Tj 172.801 0 TD -0.415 Tc (in any literal sense because the man could write "squoggle squoggle")Tj 328.801 0 TD -0.307 Tc (after )Tj -501.602 -13.6 TD -0.529 Tc ("squiggle squiggle" without understanding anything in Chinese.)Tj 297.601 0 TD -0.32 Tc (And it doesn't meet that argument to postulate )Tj -297.601 -13.6 TD -0.47 Tc (subsystems within the)Tj 106.4 0 TD -0.322 Tc (man, because the subsystems are no better off than the man was in the)Tj 340.001 0 TD -0.378 Tc (first place; they )Tj -446.402 -13.6 TD -0.441 Tc (still don't have anything even remotely like what the)Tj 248.001 0 TD -0.359 Tc (English-speaking man \(or subsystem\) has. Indeed, in the )Tj -248.001 -13.6 TD 0 Tc (case as)Tj 38.4 0 TD -0.376 Tc (described, the Chinese subsystem is simply a part of the English)Tj 308.001 0 TD -0.32 Tc (subsystem, a part that engages in )Tj -346.401 -13.6 TD -0.558 Tc (meaningless symbol manipulation)Tj 160.801 0 TD -0.452 Tc (according to rules in English.)Tj -160.801 -28.8 TD -0.327 Tc (Let us ask ourselves what is supposed to motivate the systems reply in)Tj 340.801 0 TD -0.344 Tc (the first place; that is, what independent )Tj -340.801 -13.6 TD -0.234 Tc (grounds are there supposed)Tj 136.801 0 TD -0.406 Tc (to be for saying that the agent must have a subsystem within him that)Tj 329.601 0 TD -0.621 Tc (literally )Tj -466.402 -13.6 TD -0.343 Tc (understands stories in Chinese? As far as I can tell the only)Tj 284.801 0 TD -0.337 Tc (grounds are that in the example I have the same )Tj -284.801 -13.6 TD -0.346 Tc (input and output as)Tj 94.4 0 TD -0.28 Tc (native Chinese speakers and a program that goes from one to the other.)Tj 347.201 0 TD -0.387 Tc (But the whole )Tj -441.602 -13.6 TD -0.308 Tc (point of the examples has been to try to show that that)Tj 263.201 0 TD -0.411 Tc (couldn't be sufficient for understanding, in the sense in )Tj -263.201 -13.6 TD -0.506 Tc (which I)Tj 38.4 0 TD -0.31 Tc (understand stories in English, because a person, and hence the set of)Tj 331.201 0 TD -0.272 Tc (systems that go to make up a )Tj -369.601 -13.6 TD -0.383 Tc (person, could have the right combination)Tj 197.601 0 TD -0.402 Tc (of input, output, and program and still not understand anything in the)Tj -197.601 -13.6 TD -0.436 Tc (relevant literal sense in which I understand English. )Tj 0 -28.8 TD -0.418 Tc (The only motivation for saying there must be a subsystem in me that)Tj 326.401 0 TD -0.309 Tc (understands Chinese is that I have a )Tj -326.401 -13.6 TD -0.327 Tc (program and I can pass the Turing)Tj 168.001 0 TD -0.31 Tc (test; I can fool native Chinese speakers. But precisely one of the)Tj 311.201 0 TD -0.293 Tc (points at )Tj -479.202 -13.6 TD -0.357 Tc (issue is the adequacy of the Turing test. The example shows)Tj 289.601 0 TD -0.347 Tc (that there could be two "systems," both of which )Tj -289.601 -13.6 TD -0.338 Tc (pass the Turing test,)Tj 99.2 0 TD -0.404 Tc (but only one of which understands; and it is no argument against this)Tj 328.001 0 TD -0.318 Tc (point to say that since )Tj -427.202 -13.6 TD -0.355 Tc (they both pass the Turing test they must both)Tj 217.601 0 TD -0.398 Tc (understand, since this claim fails to meet the argument that the )Tj -217.601 -13.6 TD -0.459 Tc (system)Tj 36 0 TD -0.374 Tc (in me that understands English has a great deal more than the system)Tj 330.401 0 TD -0.297 Tc (that merely processes Chinese. In )Tj -366.401 -13.6 TD -0.377 Tc (short, the systems reply simply begs)Tj 175.201 0 TD -0.45 Tc (the question by insisting without argument that the system must)Tj 301.601 0 TD -0.306 Tc (understand )Tj -476.802 -13.6 TD -0.355 Tc (Chinese.)Tj 0 -28.8 TD -0.277 Tc (Furthermore, the systems reply would appear to lead to consequences)Tj 340.801 0 TD -0.286 Tc (that are independently absurd. If we are )Tj -340.801 -13.6 TD -0.304 Tc (to conclude that there must be)Tj 148.001 0 TD -0.366 Tc (cognition in me on the grounds that I have a certain sort of input and)Tj 328.801 0 TD -0.252 Tc (output and a )Tj -476.802 -13.6 TD -0.355 Tc (program in between, then it looks like all sorts of)Tj 236.801 0 TD -0.383 Tc (noncognitive subsystems are going to turn out to be cognitive. )Tj -236.801 -13.6 TD 0 Tc (For)Tj 20.8 0 TD -0.359 Tc (example, there is a level of description at which my stomach does)Tj 316.801 0 TD -0.417 Tc (information processing, and it instantiates )Tj -337.601 -13.6 TD -0.39 Tc (any number of computer)Tj 120.8 0 TD -0.276 Tc (programs, but I take it we do not want to say that it has any)Tj 289.601 0 TD -0.396 Tc (understanding [cf. )Tj -410.402 -13.6 TD -0.446 Tc (Pylyshyn: "Computation and Cognition" BBS 3\(1\))Tj 242.401 0 TD -0.294 Tc (1980]. But if we accept the systems reply, then it is hard to )Tj -242.401 -13.6 TD -0.227 Tc (see how)Tj 43.2 0 TD -0.328 Tc (we avoid saying that stomach, heart, liver, and so on, are all)Tj 289.601 0 TD -0.372 Tc (understanding subsystems, since there is )Tj -332.801 -13.6 TD -0.359 Tc (no principled way to)Tj 101.6 0 TD -0.436 Tc (distinguish the motivation for saying the Chinese subsystem understands)Tj 344.801 0 TD -0.464 Tc (from saying that )Tj -446.402 -13.6 TD -0.296 Tc (the stomach understands. It is, by the way, not an)Tj 240.801 0 TD -0.32 Tc (answer to this point to say that the Chinese system has )Tj -240.801 -13.6 TD -0.507 Tc (information as)Tj 70.4 0 TD -0.297 Tc (input and output and the stomach has food and food products as input)Tj 339.201 0 TD -0.341 Tc (and output, since from the )Tj -409.602 -13.6 TD -0.411 Tc (point of view of the agent, from my point of)Tj 211.201 0 TD -0.35 Tc (view, there is no information in either the food or the Chinese -- the)Tj -211.201 -13.6 TD -0.464 Tc (Chinese is just so many meaningless squiggles. The information in the)Tj 332.001 0 TD -0.348 Tc (Chinese case is solely in the eyes of the )Tj -332.001 -13.6 TD -0.335 Tc (programmers and the)Tj 105.6 0 TD -0.37 Tc (interpreters, and there is nothing to prevent them from treating the)Tj 316.801 0 TD -0.405 Tc (input and output of my )Tj -422.402 -13.6 TD -0.435 Tc (digestive organs as information if they so)Tj 196.801 0 TD -0.252 Tc (desire.)Tj /F2 7.2 Tf 294.401 697.603 TD 0.266 Tc (7/14/03 6:14 PM)Tj -499.202 0 TD 0.141 Tc (Minds, Brains, and Programs)Tj 514.402 -722.403 TD 0.117 Tc (Page 6 of 19)Tj -514.402 0 TD 0.28 Tc (http://www.bbsonline.org/documents/a/00/00/04/84/bbs00000484-00/bbs.searle2.html)Tj ET endstream endobj 30 0 obj 8184 endobj 28 0 obj << /Type /Page /Parent 5 0 R /Resources <> /ProcSet 2 0 R >> /Contents 29 0 R >> endobj 33 0 obj << /Length 34 0 R >> stream 0.8 w BT /F2 12.8 Tf 38 720.003 TD -0.34 Tc 0 Tw (This last point bears on some independent problems in strong AI, and it)Tj 345.601 0 TD -0.387 Tc (is worth digressing for a moment to )Tj -345.601 -13.6 TD -0.339 Tc (explain it. If strong AI is to be a)Tj 155.201 0 TD -0.384 Tc (branch of psychology, then it must be able to distinguish those systems)Tj 340.001 0 TD -0.224 Tc (that are )Tj -495.202 -13.6 TD -0.368 Tc (genuinely mental from those that are not. It must be able to)Tj 284.001 0 TD -0.447 Tc (distinguish the principles on which the mind works )Tj -284.001 -13.6 TD -0.42 Tc (from those on which)Tj 100.8 0 TD -0.418 Tc (nonmental systems work; otherwise it will offer us no explanations of)Tj 332.001 0 TD -0.477 Tc (what is specifically )Tj -432.802 -13.6 TD -0.419 Tc (mental about the mental. And the mental-nonmental)Tj 249.601 0 TD -0.352 Tc (distinction cannot be just in the eye of the beholder but it )Tj -249.601 -13.6 TD -0.368 Tc (must be)Tj 40.8 0 TD -0.344 Tc (intrinsic to the systems; otherwise it would be up to any beholder to)Tj 326.401 0 TD -0.29 Tc (treat people as nonmental and, for )Tj -367.201 -13.6 TD -0.424 Tc (example, hurricanes as mental if he)Tj 169.601 0 TD -0.409 Tc (likes. But quite often in the AI literature the distinction is blurred)Tj 308.001 0 TD -0.433 Tc (in ways )Tj -477.602 -13.6 TD -0.377 Tc (that would in the long run prove disastrous to the claim that)Tj 285.601 0 TD -0.386 Tc (AI is a cognitive inquiry. McCarthy, for example, )Tj -285.601 -13.6 TD -0.261 Tc (writes, '-Machines as)Tj 105.6 0 TD -0.364 Tc (simple as thermostats can be said to have beliefs, and having beliefs)Tj 326.401 0 TD -0.157 Tc (seems to be a )Tj -432.002 -13.6 TD -0.346 Tc (characteristic of most machines capable of problem)Tj 249.601 0 TD -0.337 Tc (solving performance" \(McCarthy 1979\). )Tj -249.601 -28.8 TD -0.349 Tc (Anyone who thinks strong AI has a chance as a theory of the mind ought)Tj 352.001 0 TD -0.362 Tc (to ponder the implications of that )Tj -352.001 -13.6 TD -0.155 Tc (remark. We are asked to accept it as)Tj 182.401 0 TD -0.349 Tc (a discovery of strong AI that the hunk of metal on the wall that we use)Tj 339.201 0 TD 0 Tc (to )Tj -521.602 -13.6 TD -0.36 Tc (regulate the temperature has beliefs in exactly the same sense that)Tj 316.001 0 TD -0.283 Tc (we, our spouses, and our children have )Tj -316.001 -13.6 TD -0.39 Tc (beliefs, and furthermore that)Tj 137.601 0 TD -0.3 Tc ("most" of the other machines in the room -- telephone, tape recorder,)Tj 335.201 0 TD -0.405 Tc (adding )Tj -472.802 -13.6 TD -0.416 Tc (machine, electric light switch, -- also have beliefs in this)Tj 267.201 0 TD -0.37 Tc (literal sense. It is not the aim of this article to argue )Tj -267.201 -13.6 TD -0.494 Tc (against)Tj 36 0 TD -0.419 Tc (McCarthy's point, so I will simply assert the following without)Tj 298.401 0 TD -0.38 Tc (argument. The study of the mind starts )Tj -334.401 -13.6 TD -0.402 Tc (with such facts as that humans)Tj 147.201 0 TD -0.36 Tc (have beliefs, while thermostats, telephones, and adding machines don't.)Tj 343.201 0 TD -0.378 Tc (If you get )Tj -490.402 -13.6 TD -0.309 Tc (a theory that denies this point you have produced a)Tj 248.001 0 TD -0.332 Tc (counterexample to the theory and the theory is false. )Tj -248.001 -28.8 TD -0.365 Tc (One gets the impression that people in AI who write this sort of thing)Tj 332.801 0 TD -0.358 Tc (think they can get away with it because )Tj -332.801 -13.6 TD -0.347 Tc (they don't really take it)Tj 112 0 TD -0.351 Tc (seriously, and they don't think anyone else will either. I propose for)Tj 324.001 0 TD -0.286 Tc (a moment at least, to )Tj -436.002 -13.6 TD -0.403 Tc (take it seriously. Think hard for one minute)Tj 208.001 0 TD -0.325 Tc (about what would be necessary to establish that that hunk of metal )Tj -208.001 -13.6 TD 0 Tc (on)Tj 15.2 0 TD -0.403 Tc (the wall over there had real beliefs beliefs with direction of fit,)Tj 296.801 0 TD -0.344 Tc (propositional content, and conditions of )Tj -312.001 -13.6 TD -0.401 Tc (satisfaction; beliefs that had)Tj 134.401 0 TD -0.389 Tc (the possibility of being strong beliefs or weak beliefs; nervous,)Tj 300.001 0 TD -0.293 Tc (anxious, or secure )Tj -434.402 -13.6 TD -0.386 Tc (beliefs; dogmatic, rational, or superstitious)Tj 204.801 0 TD -0.425 Tc (beliefs; blind faiths or hesitant cogitations; any kind of beliefs. The)Tj -204.801 -13.6 TD -0.341 Tc (thermostat is not a candidate. Neither is stomach, liver adding)Tj 298.401 0 TD -0.292 Tc (machine, or telephone. However, since we are )Tj -298.401 -13.6 TD -0.399 Tc (taking the idea seriously,)Tj 120.8 0 TD -0.327 Tc (notice that its truth would be fatal to strong AI's claim to be a)Tj 296.001 0 TD -0.322 Tc (science of the mind. For )Tj -416.802 -13.6 TD -0.324 Tc (now the mind is everywhere. What we wanted to)Tj 239.201 0 TD -0.411 Tc (know is what distinguishes the mind from thermostats and )Tj -239.201 -13.6 TD -0.507 Tc (livers. And if)Tj 64 0 TD -0.36 Tc (McCarthy were right, strong AI wouldn't have a hope of telling us)Tj 318.401 0 TD -0.319 Tc (that.)Tj -382.401 -28.8 TD -0.302 Tc (II. The Robot Reply \(Yale\). "Suppose we wrote a different kind of)Tj 324.001 0 TD -0.266 Tc (program from Schank's program. Suppose )Tj -324.001 -13.6 TD -0.306 Tc (we put a computer inside a)Tj 132.801 0 TD -0.352 Tc (robot, and this computer would not just take in formal symbols as input)Tj 344.001 0 TD -0.375 Tc (and give out )Tj -476.802 -13.6 TD -0.386 Tc (formal symbols as output, but rather would actually)Tj 248.001 0 TD -0.224 Tc (operate the robot in such a way that the robot does )Tj -248.001 -13.6 TD -0.532 Tc (something very much)Tj 104 0 TD -0.491 Tc (like perceiving, walking, moving about, hammering nails, eating)Tj 303.201 0 TD -0.444 Tc (drinking -- anything you )Tj -407.202 -13.6 TD -0.328 Tc (like. The robot would, for example have a)Tj 204.801 0 TD -0.313 Tc (television camera attached to it that enabled it to 'see,' it would)Tj 303.201 0 TD -0.353 Tc (have )Tj -508.002 -13.6 TD -0.314 Tc (arms and legs that enabled it to 'act,' and all of this would be)Tj 292.001 0 TD -0.276 Tc (controlled by its computer 'brain.' Such a robot )Tj -292.001 -13.6 TD -0.371 Tc (would, unlike Schank's)Tj 113.6 0 TD -0.381 Tc (computer, have genuine understanding and other mental states.")Tj -113.6 -28.8 TD (The first thing to notice about the robot reply is that it tacitly)Tj 288.801 0 TD -0.347 Tc (concedes that cognition is not solely a matter of )Tj -288.801 -13.6 TD -0.539 Tc (formal symbol)Tj 71.2 0 TD -0.39 Tc (manipulation, since this reply adds a set of causal relation with the)Tj 316.801 0 TD -0.276 Tc (outside world [cf. Fodor: )Tj -388.001 -13.6 TD -0.357 Tc ("Methodological Solipsism" BBS 3\(1\) 1980].)Tj 221.601 0 TD -0.322 Tc (But the answer to the robot reply is that the addition of such)Tj -221.601 -13.6 TD -0.377 Tc ("perceptual" and "motor" capacities adds nothing by way of)Tj 288.001 0 TD -0.454 Tc (understanding, in particular, or intentionality, in )Tj -288.001 -13.6 TD -0.329 Tc (general, to)Tj 53.6 0 TD -0.352 Tc (Schank's original program. To see this, notice that the same thought)Tj 326.401 0 TD -0.301 Tc (experiment applies to the robot )Tj -380.001 -13.6 TD -0.241 Tc (case. Suppose that instead of the)Tj 161.601 0 TD -0.328 Tc (computer inside the robot, you put me inside the room and, as in the)Tj 329.601 0 TD -0.601 Tc (original )Tj -491.202 -13.6 TD -0.375 Tc (Chinese case, you give me more Chinese symbols with more)Tj 293.601 0 TD -0.511 Tc (instructions in English for matching Chinese )Tj -293.601 -13.6 TD -0.39 Tc (symbols to Chinese symbols)Tj 139.201 0 TD -0.301 Tc (and feeding back Chinese symbols to the outside. Suppose, unknown to)Tj 349.601 0 TD -0.295 Tc (me, some )Tj -488.802 -13.6 TD -0.373 Tc (of the Chinese symbols that come to me come from a television)Tj 306.401 0 TD -0.21 Tc (camera attached to the robot and other )Tj /F2 7.2 Tf 184.801 680.003 TD 0.266 Tc (7/14/03 6:14 PM)Tj -499.202 0 TD 0.141 Tc (Minds, Brains, and Programs)Tj 514.402 -722.403 TD 0.117 Tc (Page 7 of 19)Tj -514.402 0 TD 0.28 Tc (http://www.bbsonline.org/documents/a/00/00/04/84/bbs00000484-00/bbs.searle2.html)Tj ET endstream endobj 34 0 obj 8231 endobj 31 0 obj << /Type /Page /Parent 32 0 R /Resources <> /ProcSet 2 0 R >> /Contents 33 0 R >> endobj 36 0 obj << /Length 37 0 R >> stream 0.8 w BT /F2 12.8 Tf 38 729.603 TD -0.466 Tc 0 Tw (Chinese symbols that I am giving)Tj 160.001 0 TD -0.273 Tc (out serve to make the motors inside the robot move the robot's legs or)Tj 340.801 0 TD -0.28 Tc (arms. )Tj -500.802 -13.6 TD -0.45 Tc (It is important to emphasize that all I am doing is manipulating)Tj 296.801 0 TD -0.347 Tc (formal symbols: I know none of these other facts. )Tj -296.801 -13.6 TD -0.48 Tc (I am receiving)Tj 70.4 0 TD -0.411 Tc ("information" from the robot's "perceptual" apparatus, and I am giving)Tj 336.001 0 TD -0.453 Tc (out "instructions" to its )Tj -406.402 -13.6 TD -0.374 Tc (motor apparatus without knowing either of)Tj 207.201 0 TD -0.369 Tc (these facts. I am the robot's homunculus, but unlike the traditional)Tj -207.201 -13.6 TD -0.37 Tc (homunculus, I don't know what's going on. I don't understand anything)Tj 340.801 0 TD -0.348 Tc (except the rules for symbol )Tj -340.801 -13.6 TD -0.37 Tc (manipulation. Now in this case I want to)Tj 196.001 0 TD -0.382 Tc (say that the robot has no intentional states at all; it is simply)Tj 284.801 0 TD -0.673 Tc (moving )Tj -480.802 -13.6 TD -0.36 Tc (about as a result of its electrical wiring and its program. And)Tj 291.201 0 TD -0.397 Tc (furthermore, by instantiating the program I have no )Tj -291.201 -13.6 TD -0.443 Tc (intentional states)Tj 81.6 0 TD -0.4 Tc (of the relevant type. All I do is follow formal instructions about)Tj 302.401 0 TD -0.555 Tc (manipulating formal symbols.)Tj -384.001 -28.8 TD -0.311 Tc (III. The brain simulator reply \(Berkeley and M.I.T.\). "Suppose we)Tj 321.601 0 TD -0.267 Tc (design a program that doesn't represent )Tj -321.601 -13.6 TD -0.398 Tc (information that we have about)Tj 151.201 0 TD -0.37 Tc (the world, such as the information in Schank's scripts, but simulates)Tj 324.801 0 TD -0.345 Tc (the actual )Tj -476.002 -13.6 TD -0.351 Tc (sequence of neuron firings at the synapses of the brain of a)Tj 283.201 0 TD -0.305 Tc (native Chinese speaker when he understands stories )Tj -283.201 -13.6 TD -0.435 Tc (in Chinese and gives)Tj 100.8 0 TD -0.334 Tc (answers to them. The machine takes in Chinese stories and)Tj 285.601 0 TD -0.341 Tc (questions about them as input, )Tj -386.401 -13.6 TD -0.448 Tc (it simulates the formal l structure of)Tj 169.601 0 TD -0.353 Tc (actual Chinese brains in processing these stories, and it gives out)Tj 311.201 0 TD -0.355 Tc (Chinese )Tj -480.802 -13.6 TD (answers as outputs. We can even imagine that the machine)Tj 284.001 0 TD -0.34 Tc (operates, not with a single serial program, but with a )Tj -284.001 -13.6 TD -0.347 Tc (whole set of)Tj 61.6 0 TD -0.412 Tc (programs operating in parallel, in the manner that actual human brains)Tj 334.401 0 TD -0.313 Tc (presumably operate when )Tj -396.002 -13.6 TD -0.37 Tc (they process natural language. Now surely in)Tj 217.601 0 TD -0.294 Tc (such a case we would have to say that the machine understood )Tj -217.601 -13.6 TD -0.413 Tc (the)Tj 17.6 0 TD -0.307 Tc (stories; and if we refuse to say that, wouldn't we also have to deny)Tj 321.601 0 TD -0.276 Tc (that native Chinese speakers understood )Tj -339.201 -13.6 TD -0.354 Tc (the stories? At the level of)Tj 128 0 TD -0.313 Tc (the synapses, what would or could be different about the program of the)Tj 349.601 0 TD -0.304 Tc (computer )Tj -477.602 -13.6 TD -0.353 Tc (and the program of the Chinese brain?")Tj 0 -28.8 TD -0.351 Tc (Before countering this reply I want to digress to note that it is an)Tj 309.601 0 TD -0.386 Tc (odd reply for any partisan of artificial )Tj -309.601 -13.6 TD -0.514 Tc (intelligence \(or)Tj 72.8 0 TD -0.398 Tc (functionalism, etc.\) to make: I thought the whole idea of)Tj 268.801 0 TD -0.255 Tc (strong AI is that we don't need to know )Tj -341.601 -13.6 TD -0.275 Tc (how the brain works to know how)Tj 169.601 0 TD -0.261 Tc (the mind works. The basic hypothesis, or so I had supposed, was that)Tj 339.201 0 TD -0.264 Tc (there )Tj -508.802 -13.6 TD -0.422 Tc (is a level of mental operations consisting of computational)Tj 277.601 0 TD -0.33 Tc (processes over formal elements that constitute the )Tj -277.601 -13.6 TD -0.271 Tc (essence of the)Tj 71.2 0 TD -0.346 Tc (mental and can be realized in all sorts of different brain processes,)Tj 318.401 0 TD -0.372 Tc (in the same way that any )Tj -389.601 -13.6 TD -0.375 Tc (computer program can be realized in different)Tj 221.601 0 TD -0.347 Tc (computer hardwares: on the assumptions of strong AI, the mind )Tj -221.601 -13.6 TD -0.326 Tc (is to the)Tj 40.8 0 TD -0.288 Tc (brain as the program is to the hardware, and thus we can understand the)Tj 349.601 0 TD -0.515 Tc (mind without doing )Tj -390.401 -13.6 TD -0.349 Tc (neurophysiology. If we had to know how the brain)Tj 245.601 0 TD -0.239 Tc (worked to do AI, we wouldn't bother with AI. However, )Tj -245.601 -13.6 TD -0.506 Tc (even getting this)Tj 79.2 0 TD -0.361 Tc (close to the operation of the brain is still not sufficient to produce)Tj 312.801 0 TD -0.342 Tc (understanding. To see this, )Tj -392.001 -13.6 TD -0.49 Tc (imagine that instead of a mono lingual man)Tj 204.801 0 TD -0.372 Tc (in a room shuffling symbols we have the man operate an elaborate )Tj -204.801 -13.6 TD -0.28 Tc (set of)Tj 29.6 0 TD -0.377 Tc (water pipes with valves connecting them. When the man receives the)Tj 332.001 0 TD -0.348 Tc (Chinese symbols, he looks up in the )Tj -361.601 -13.6 TD -0.493 Tc (program, written in English, which)Tj 165.601 0 TD -0.294 Tc (valves he has to turn on and off. Each water connection corresponds to)Tj 344.801 0 TD 0 Tc (a )Tj -510.402 -13.6 TD -0.352 Tc (synapse in the Chinese brain, and the whole system is rigged up so)Tj 321.601 0 TD -0.449 Tc (that after doing all the right firings, that is )Tj -321.601 -13.6 TD -0.501 Tc (after turning on all)Tj 88.8 0 TD -0.305 Tc (the right faucets, the Chinese answers pop out at the output end of the)Tj 338.401 0 TD -0.277 Tc (series of pipes.)Tj -427.202 -28.8 TD -0.33 Tc (I Now where is the understanding in this system? It takes Chinese as)Tj 332.001 0 TD -0.431 Tc (input, it simulates the formal structure of )Tj -332.001 -13.6 TD -0.322 Tc (the synapses of the Chinese)Tj 136.001 0 TD -0.349 Tc (brain, and it gives Chinese as output. But the man certainly doesn-t)Tj 323.201 0 TD -0.306 Tc (understand )Tj -459.202 -13.6 TD -0.281 Tc (Chinese, and neither do the water pipes, and if we are)Tj 262.401 0 TD -0.294 Tc (tempted to adopt what I think is the absurd view that )Tj -262.401 -13.6 TD -0.355 Tc (somehow the)Tj 67.2 0 TD -0.344 Tc (conjunction of man and water pipes understands, remember that in)Tj 322.401 0 TD -0.406 Tc (principle the man can )Tj -389.601 -13.6 TD -0.411 Tc (internalize the formal structure of the water)Tj 207.201 0 TD -0.469 Tc (pipes and do all the "neuron firings" in his imagination. The problem)Tj -207.201 -13.6 TD -0.493 Tc (with the brain simulator is that it is simulating the wrong things)Tj 296.001 0 TD -0.382 Tc (about the brain. As long as it simulates only the )Tj -296.001 -13.6 TD -0.419 Tc (formal structure of)Tj 91.2 0 TD -0.37 Tc (the sequence of neuron firings at the synapses, it won't have simulated)Tj 336.801 0 TD -0.284 Tc (what matters about )Tj -428.002 -13.6 TD -0.394 Tc (the brain, namely its causal properties, its ability)Tj 231.201 0 TD -0.305 Tc (to produce intentional states. And that the formal properties are )Tj -231.201 -13.6 TD -0.385 Tc (not)Tj 18.4 0 TD -0.351 Tc (sufficient for the causal properties is shown by the water pipe)Tj 296.001 0 TD -0.42 Tc (example: we can have all the formal )Tj -314.401 -13.6 TD -0.318 Tc (properties carved off from the)Tj 147.201 0 TD -0.37 Tc (relevant neurobiological causal properties.)Tj -147.201 -28.8 TD -0.341 Tc (IV. The combination reply \(Berkeley and Stanford\). 'While each of the)Tj 342.401 0 TD -0.369 Tc (previous three replies might not be )Tj -342.401 -13.6 TD -0.482 Tc (completely convincing by itself as)Tj 162.401 0 TD -0.366 Tc (a refutation of the Chinese room counterexample, if you take all three)Tj 334.401 0 TD -0.304 Tc (together )Tj /F2 7.2 Tf -5.6 684.003 TD 0.266 Tc (7/14/03 6:14 PM)Tj -499.202 0 TD 0.141 Tc (Minds, Brains, and Programs)Tj 514.402 -722.403 TD 0.117 Tc (Page 8 of 19)Tj -514.402 0 TD 0.28 Tc (http://www.bbsonline.org/documents/a/00/00/04/84/bbs00000484-00/bbs.searle2.html)Tj ET endstream endobj 37 0 obj 8358 endobj 35 0 obj << /Type /Page /Parent 32 0 R /Resources <> /ProcSet 2 0 R >> /Contents 36 0 R >> endobj 39 0 obj << /Length 40 0 R >> stream 0.8 w BT /F2 12.8 Tf 38 729.603 TD -0.432 Tc 0 Tw (they are collectively much more convincing and even decisive.)Tj 299.201 0 TD -0.3 Tc (Imagine a robot with a brain-shaped computer )Tj -299.201 -13.6 TD -0.443 Tc (lodged in its cranial)Tj 95.2 0 TD -0.396 Tc (cavity, imagine the computer programmed with all the synapses of a)Tj 327.201 0 TD -0.532 Tc (human brain, imagine )Tj -422.402 -13.6 TD -0.328 Tc (the whole behavior of the robot is)Tj 164.801 0 TD -0.477 Tc (indistinguishable from human behavior, and now think of the whole thing)Tj 347.201 0 TD 0 Tc (as a )Tj -512.002 -13.6 TD -0.364 Tc (unified system and not just as a computer with inputs and outputs.)Tj 317.601 0 TD -0.318 Tc (Surely in such a case we would have to )Tj -317.601 -13.6 TD -0.431 Tc (ascribe intentionality to the)Tj 130.401 0 TD -0.296 Tc (system. ')Tj -130.401 -28.8 TD -0.37 Tc (I entirely agree that in such a case we would find it rational and)Tj 304.001 0 TD -0.328 Tc (indeed irresistible to accept the hypothesis that )Tj -304.001 -13.6 TD -0.211 Tc (the robot had)Tj 68 0 TD -0.375 Tc (intentionality, as long as we knew nothing more about it. Indeed,)Tj 311.201 0 TD -0.179 Tc (besides appearance and )Tj -379.201 -13.6 TD -0.377 Tc (behavior, the other elements of the combination)Tj 230.401 0 TD -0.334 Tc (are really irrelevant. If we could build a robot whose behavior )Tj -230.401 -13.6 TD 0 Tc (was)Tj 22.4 0 TD -0.432 Tc (indistinguishable over a large range from human behavior, we would)Tj 328.001 0 TD -0.45 Tc (attribute intentionality to it, pending )Tj -350.401 -13.6 TD -0.257 Tc (some reason not to. We wouldn't)Tj 163.201 0 TD -0.334 Tc (need to know in advance that its computer brain was a formal analogue)Tj 344.801 0 TD -0.329 Tc (of the )Tj -508.002 -13.6 TD -0.495 Tc (human brain.)Tj 0 -28.8 TD -0.366 Tc (But I really don't see that this is any help to the claims of strong)Tj 304.801 0 TD -0.298 Tc (AI; and here-s why: According to strong AI, )Tj -304.801 -13.6 TD -0.54 Tc (instantiating a formal)Tj 100.8 0 TD -0.432 Tc (program with the right input and output is a sufficient condition of,)Tj 316.801 0 TD -0.394 Tc (indeed is constitutive of, )Tj -417.602 -13.6 TD -0.381 Tc (intentionality. As Newell \(1979\) puts it,)Tj 192.001 0 TD -0.358 Tc (the essence of the mental is the operation of a physical symbol system.)Tj -192.001 -13.6 TD -0.39 Tc (But the attributions of intentionality that we make to the robot in)Tj 308.001 0 TD -0.435 Tc (this example have nothing to do with formal )Tj -308.001 -13.6 TD -0.397 Tc (programs. They are simply)Tj 131.201 0 TD -0.288 Tc (based on the assumption that if the robot looks and behaves)Tj 291.201 0 TD -0.522 Tc (sufficiently like us, then )Tj -422.402 -13.6 TD -0.335 Tc (we would suppose, until proven otherwise,)Tj 208.801 0 TD -0.328 Tc (that it must have mental states like ours that cause and are )Tj -208.801 -13.6 TD -0.185 Tc (expressed)Tj 52 0 TD -0.393 Tc (by its behavior and it must have an inner mechanism capable of)Tj 304.801 0 TD -0.347 Tc (producing such mental states. If we )Tj -356.801 -13.6 TD -0.341 Tc (knew independently how to account)Tj 176.801 0 TD -0.381 Tc (for its behavior without such assumptions we would not attribute)Tj -176.801 -13.6 TD -0.419 Tc (intentionality to it especially if we knew it had a formal program. And)Tj 332.801 0 TD -0.411 Tc (this is precisely the point of my earlier )Tj -332.801 -13.6 TD -0.249 Tc (reply to objection 11.)Tj 0 -28.8 TD -0.273 Tc (Suppose we knew that the robot's behavior was entirely accounted for by)Tj 357.601 0 TD -0.357 Tc (the fact that a man inside it was )Tj -357.601 -13.6 TD -0.466 Tc (receiving uninterpreted formal)Tj 145.601 0 TD -0.299 Tc (symbols from the robot's sensory receptors and sending out)Tj 289.601 0 TD -0.417 Tc (uninterpreted formal )Tj -435.202 -13.6 TD -0.372 Tc (symbols to its motor mechanisms, and the man was)Tj 248.801 0 TD -0.43 Tc (doing this symbol manipulation in accordance with a bunch )Tj -248.801 -13.6 TD -0.394 Tc (of rules.)Tj 41.6 0 TD -0.268 Tc (Furthermore, suppose the man knows none of these facts about the robot,)Tj 359.201 0 TD -0.424 Tc (all he knows is which )Tj -400.802 -13.6 TD -0.397 Tc (operations to perform on which meaningless)Tj 214.401 0 TD -0.309 Tc (symbols. In such a case we would regard the robot as an ingenious)Tj -214.401 -13.6 TD -0.44 Tc (mechanical dummy. The hypothesis that the dummy has a mind would now)Tj 360.801 0 TD -0.284 Tc (be unwarranted and unnecessary, )Tj -360.801 -13.6 TD -0.337 Tc (for there is now no longer any reason)Tj 181.601 0 TD -0.361 Tc (to ascribe intentionality to the robot or to the system of which it is)Tj 316.001 0 TD 0 Tc (a part )Tj -497.602 -13.6 TD -0.454 Tc (\(except of course for the man's intentionality in manipulating)Tj 288.001 0 TD -0.449 Tc (the symbols\). The formal symbol manipulations go )Tj -288.001 -13.6 TD -0.355 Tc (on, the input and)Tj 83.2 0 TD -0.387 Tc (output are correctly matched, but the only real locus of intentionality)Tj 328.001 0 TD -0.285 Tc (is the man, and he doesn't )Tj -411.202 -13.6 TD -0.39 Tc (know any of the relevant intentional states;)Tj 206.401 0 TD -0.257 Tc (he doesn't, for example, see what comes into the robot's eyes, he)Tj -206.401 -13.6 TD -0.268 Tc (doesn't intend to move the robot's arm, and he doesn't understand any)Tj 340.001 0 TD -0.223 Tc (of the remarks made to or by the robot. )Tj -340.001 -13.6 TD -0.189 Tc (Nor, for the reasons stated)Tj 132.801 0 TD -0.278 Tc (earlier, does the system of which man and robot are a part.)Tj -132.801 -28.8 TD -0.36 Tc (To see this point, contrast this case with cases in which we find it)Tj 313.601 0 TD -0.417 Tc (completely natural to ascribe intentionality to )Tj -313.601 -13.6 TD -0.378 Tc (members of certain)Tj 95.2 0 TD -0.308 Tc (other primate species such as apes and monkeys and to domestic animals)Tj 355.201 0 TD -0.256 Tc (such as dogs. The )Tj -450.402 -13.6 TD -0.369 Tc (reasons we find it natural are, roughly, two: we)Tj 227.201 0 TD -0.355 Tc (can't make sense of the animal's behavior without the ascription )Tj -227.201 -13.6 TD -0.531 Tc (of)Tj 12.8 0 TD -0.379 Tc (intentionality and we can see that the beasts are made of similar stuff)Tj 329.601 0 TD -0.238 Tc (to ourselves -- that is an eye, that a )Tj -342.401 -13.6 TD -0.326 Tc (nose, this is its skin, and so)Tj 132.801 0 TD -0.364 Tc (on. Given the coherence of the animal's behavior and the assumption of)Tj 344.001 0 TD -0.304 Tc (the same )Tj -476.802 -13.6 TD -0.439 Tc (causal stuff underlying it, we assume both that the animal)Tj 272.801 0 TD -0.406 Tc (must have mental states underlying its behavior, and )Tj -272.801 -13.6 TD -0.431 Tc (that the mental)Tj 72.8 0 TD -0.339 Tc (states must be produced by mechanisms made out of the stuff that is)Tj 329.601 0 TD -0.379 Tc (like our stuff. We would )Tj -402.402 -13.6 TD -0.423 Tc (certainly make similar assumptions about the)Tj 216.001 0 TD -0.223 Tc (robot unless we had some reason not to, but as soon as we knew )Tj -216.001 -13.6 TD -0.354 Tc (that the)Tj 38.4 0 TD -0.339 Tc (behavior was the result of a formal program, and that the actual causal)Tj 339.201 0 TD -0.331 Tc (properties of the physical )Tj -377.601 -13.6 TD -0.313 Tc (substance were irrelevant we would abandon)Tj 220.001 0 TD -0.432 Tc (the assumption of intentionality. [See "Cognition and )Tj -220.001 -13.6 TD -0.384 Tc (Consciousness in)Tj 85.6 0 TD -0.23 Tc (Nonhuman Species BBS 1\(4\) 1978.])Tj /F2 7.2 Tf 405.602 670.403 TD 0.266 Tc (7/14/03 6:14 PM)Tj -499.202 0 TD 0.141 Tc (Minds, Brains, and Programs)Tj 514.402 -722.403 TD 0.117 Tc (Page 9 of 19)Tj -514.402 0 TD 0.28 Tc (http://www.bbsonline.org/documents/a/00/00/04/84/bbs00000484-00/bbs.searle2.html)Tj ET endstream endobj 40 0 obj 7756 endobj 38 0 obj << /Type /Page /Parent 32 0 R /Resources <> /ProcSet 2 0 R >> /Contents 39 0 R >> endobj 42 0 obj << /Length 43 0 R >> stream 0.8 w BT /F2 12.8 Tf 38 729.603 TD -0.315 Tc 0 Tw (There are two other responses to my example that come up frequently)Tj 340.001 0 TD -0.339 Tc (\(and so are worth discussing\) but really )Tj -340.001 -13.6 TD -0.415 Tc (miss the point.)Tj 0 -28.8 TD -0.309 Tc (V. The other minds reply \(Yale\). "How do you know that other people)Tj 343.201 0 TD -0.369 Tc (understand Chinese or anything else? )Tj -343.201 -13.6 TD -0.334 Tc (Only by their behavior. Now the)Tj 159.201 0 TD -0.315 Tc (computer can pass the behavioral tests as well as they can \(in)Tj 296.801 0 TD -0.409 Tc (principle\), so if )Tj -456.002 -13.6 TD -0.341 Tc (you are going to attribute cognition to other people)Tj 246.401 0 TD -0.369 Tc (you must in principle also attribute it to computers. ')Tj -246.401 -28.8 TD -0.395 Tc (This objection really is only worth a short reply. The problem in this)Tj 326.401 0 TD -0.315 Tc (discussion is not about how I know that )Tj -326.401 -13.6 TD -0.363 Tc (other people have cognitive)Tj 135.201 0 TD -0.35 Tc (states, but rather what it is that I am attributing to them when I)Tj 300.001 0 TD -0.434 Tc (attribute cognitive )Tj -435.202 -13.6 TD -0.356 Tc (states to them. The thrust of the argument is that)Tj 232.801 0 TD -0.317 Tc (it couldn't be just computational processes and their output )Tj -232.801 -13.6 TD -0.187 Tc (because)Tj 42.4 0 TD -0.346 Tc (the computational processes and their output can exist without the)Tj 318.401 0 TD -0.313 Tc (cognitive state. It is no answer to )Tj -360.801 -13.6 TD -0.438 Tc (this argument to feign anesthesia.)Tj 160.001 0 TD -0.368 Tc (In 'cognitive sciences" one presupposes the reality and knowability of)Tj 334.401 0 TD -0.309 Tc (the )Tj -494.402 -13.6 TD -0.38 Tc (mental in the same way that in physical sciences one has to)Tj 284.001 0 TD -0.37 Tc (presuppose the reality and knowability of physical )Tj -284.001 -13.6 TD -0.132 Tc (objects.)Tj 0 -28.8 TD -0.413 Tc (VI. The many mansions reply \(Berkeley\). "Your whole argument)Tj 312.801 0 TD -0.307 Tc (presupposes that AI is only about analogue )Tj -312.801 -13.6 TD -0.392 Tc (and digital computers. But)Tj 128.8 0 TD -0.278 Tc (that just happens to be the present state of technology. Whatever these)Tj 343.201 0 TD -0.34 Tc (causal )Tj -472.002 -13.6 TD -0.349 Tc (processes are that you say are essential for intentionality)Tj 271.201 0 TD -0.418 Tc (\(assuming you are right\), eventually we will be able to )Tj -271.201 -13.6 TD -0.423 Tc (build devices)Tj 65.6 0 TD -0.349 Tc (that have these causal processes, and that will be artificial)Tj 277.601 0 TD -0.42 Tc (intelligence. So your arguments are in )Tj -343.201 -13.6 TD -0.351 Tc (no way directed at the ability)Tj 141.601 0 TD -0.463 Tc (of artificial intelligence to produce and explain cognition.")Tj -141.601 -28.8 TD -0.353 Tc (I really have no objection to this reply save to say that it in effect)Tj 311.201 0 TD -0.365 Tc (trivializes the project of strong AI by )Tj -311.201 -13.6 TD -0.435 Tc (redefining it as whatever)Tj 119.2 0 TD -0.42 Tc (artificially produces and explains cognition. The interest of the)Tj 297.601 0 TD -0.485 Tc (original claim made on )Tj -416.802 -13.6 TD -0.493 Tc (behalf of artificial intelligence is that it was)Tj 202.401 0 TD -0.348 Tc (a precise, well defined thesis: mental processes are computational)Tj -202.401 -13.6 TD -0.31 Tc (processes over formally defined elements. I have been concerned to)Tj 329.601 0 TD -0.434 Tc (challenge that thesis. If the claim is )Tj -329.601 -13.6 TD -0.344 Tc (redefined so that it is no)Tj 117.6 0 TD -0.339 Tc (longer that thesis, my objections no longer apply because there is no)Tj 329.601 0 TD -0.304 Tc (longer a testable )Tj -447.202 -13.6 TD -0.338 Tc (hypothesis for them to apply to.)Tj 0 -28.8 TD -0.319 Tc (Let us now return to the question I promised I would try to answer:)Tj 325.601 0 TD -0.445 Tc (granted that in my original example I )Tj -325.601 -13.6 TD -0.363 Tc (understand the English and I do)Tj 154.401 0 TD -0.331 Tc (not understand the Chinese, and granted therefore that the machine)Tj 324.001 0 TD -0.166 Tc (doesn't )Tj -478.402 -13.6 TD -0.401 Tc (understand either English or Chinese, still there must be)Tj 267.201 0 TD -0.325 Tc (something about me that makes it the case that I )Tj -267.201 -13.6 TD -0.443 Tc (understand English and)Tj 113.6 0 TD -0.366 Tc (a corresponding something lacking in me that makes it the case that I)Tj 332.001 0 TD -0.378 Tc (fail to understand )Tj -445.602 -13.6 TD -0.36 Tc (Chinese. Now why couldn't we give those somethings,)Tj 264.801 0 TD -0.314 Tc (whatever they are, to a machine?)Tj -264.801 -28.8 TD -0.372 Tc (I see no reason in principle why we couldn't give a machine the)Tj 304.801 0 TD -0.348 Tc (capacity to understand English or Chinese, )Tj -304.801 -13.6 TD -0.394 Tc (since in an important sense)Tj 131.201 0 TD -0.316 Tc (our bodies with our brains are precisely such machines. But I do see)Tj 330.401 0 TD -0.362 Tc (very strong )Tj -461.602 -13.6 TD -0.407 Tc (arguments for saying that we could not give such a thing to)Tj 282.401 0 TD -0.368 Tc (a machine where the operation of the machine is )Tj -282.401 -13.6 TD -0.459 Tc (defined solely in terms)Tj 109.6 0 TD -0.378 Tc (of computational processes over formally defined elements; that is,)Tj 321.601 0 TD -0.282 Tc (where the operation )Tj -431.202 -13.6 TD -0.411 Tc (of the machine is defined as an instantiation of a)Tj 230.401 0 TD -0.331 Tc (computer program. It is not because I am the instantiation of a)Tj -230.401 -13.6 TD -0.34 Tc (computer program that I am able to understand English and have other)Tj 341.601 0 TD -0.382 Tc (forms of intentionality \(I am, I suppose, )Tj -341.601 -13.6 TD -0.469 Tc (the instantiation of any)Tj 109.6 0 TD -0.292 Tc (number of computer programs\), but as far as we know it is because I am)Tj 352.801 0 TD -0.247 Tc (a certain sort )Tj -462.402 -13.6 TD -0.424 Tc (of organism with a certain biological \(i.e. chemical and)Tj 262.401 0 TD -0.346 Tc (physical\) structure, and this structure, under certain )Tj -262.401 -13.6 TD -0.419 Tc (conditions, is)Tj 65.6 0 TD -0.347 Tc (causally capable of producing perception, action, understanding,)Tj 311.201 0 TD -0.446 Tc (learning, and other intentional )Tj -376.801 -13.6 TD -0.325 Tc (phenomena. And part of the point of the)Tj 196.001 0 TD -0.358 Tc (present argument is that only something that had those causal powers)Tj -196.001 -13.6 TD -0.403 Tc (could have that intentionality. Perhaps other physical and chemical)Tj 319.201 0 TD -0.241 Tc (processes could produce exactly these )Tj -319.201 -13.6 TD -0.312 Tc (effects; perhaps, for example,)Tj 145.601 0 TD -0.394 Tc (Martians also have intentionality but their brains are made of)Tj 291.201 0 TD -0.463 Tc (different stuff. That )Tj -436.802 -13.6 TD -0.395 Tc (is an empirical question, rather like the)Tj 186.401 0 TD -0.362 Tc (question whether photosynthesis can be done by something with a)Tj -186.401 -13.6 TD -0.469 Tc (chemistry different from that of chlorophyll.)Tj /F2 7.2 Tf 491.202 673.603 TD 0.266 Tc (7/14/03 6:14 PM)Tj -499.202 0 TD 0.141 Tc (Minds, Brains, and Programs)Tj 510.402 -722.403 TD 0.139 Tc (Page 10 of 19)Tj -510.402 0 TD 0.28 Tc (http://www.bbsonline.org/documents/a/00/00/04/84/bbs00000484-00/bbs.searle2.html)Tj ET endstream endobj 43 0 obj 7321 endobj 41 0 obj << /Type /Page /Parent 32 0 R /Resources <> /ProcSet 2 0 R >> /Contents 42 0 R >> endobj 45 0 obj << /Length 46 0 R >> stream 0.8 w BT /F2 12.8 Tf 38 729.603 TD -0.409 Tc 0 Tw (But the main point of the present argument is that no purely formal)Tj 319.201 0 TD -0.465 Tc (model will ever be sufficient by itself for )Tj -319.201 -13.6 TD -0.446 Tc (intentionality because the)Tj 122.4 0 TD -0.417 Tc (formal properties are not by themselves constitutive of intentionality,)Tj 328.001 0 TD -0.322 Tc (and they have by )Tj -450.402 -13.6 TD -0.292 Tc (themselves no causal powers except the power, when)Tj 261.601 0 TD -0.356 Tc (instantiated, to produce the next stage of the formalism )Tj -261.601 -13.6 TD -0.42 Tc (when the)Tj 46.4 0 TD -0.387 Tc (machine is running. And any other causal properties that particular)Tj 319.201 0 TD -0.443 Tc (realizations of the formal model )Tj -365.601 -13.6 TD -0.369 Tc (have, are irrelevant to the formal)Tj 158.401 0 TD -0.365 Tc (model because we can always put the same formal model in a different)Tj -158.401 -13.6 TD -0.338 Tc (realization where those causal properties are obviously absent. Even)Tj 329.601 0 TD -0.328 Tc (if, by some miracle Chinese speakers )Tj -329.601 -13.6 TD -0.345 Tc (exactly realize Schank's program,)Tj 164.001 0 TD -0.3 Tc (we can put the same program in English speakers, water pipes, or)Tj -164.001 -13.6 TD -0.338 Tc (computers, none of which understand Chinese, the program)Tj 289.601 0 TD -0.505 Tc (notwithstanding.)Tj -289.601 -28.8 TD -0.305 Tc (What matters about brain operations is not the formal shadow cast by)Tj 337.601 0 TD -0.274 Tc (the sequence of synapses but rather the )Tj -337.601 -13.6 TD -0.302 Tc (actual properties of the)Tj 113.6 0 TD -0.41 Tc (sequences. All the arguments for the strong version of artificial)Tj 300.001 0 TD -0.453 Tc (intelligence that I have )Tj -413.602 -13.6 TD -0.403 Tc (seen insist on drawing an outline around the)Tj 211.201 0 TD -0.348 Tc (shadows cast by cognition and then claiming that the shadows are )Tj -211.201 -13.6 TD -0.413 Tc (the)Tj 17.6 0 TD -0.354 Tc (real thing. By way of concluding I want to try to state some of the)Tj 316.801 0 TD -0.483 Tc (general philosophical points implicit in the )Tj -334.401 -13.6 TD -0.377 Tc (argument. For clarity I)Tj 110.4 0 TD -0.385 Tc (will try to do it in a question and answer fashion, and I begin with)Tj 314.401 0 TD -0.32 Tc (that old chestnut of a )Tj -424.802 -13.6 TD -0.503 Tc (question:)Tj 0 -28.8 TD -0.482 Tc ("Could a machine think?")Tj T* -0.342 Tc (The answer is, obviously, yes. We are precisely such machines.)Tj T* -0.38 Tc ("Yes, but could an artifact, a man-made machine think?")Tj T* -0.442 Tc (Assuming it is possible to produce artificially a machine with a)Tj 298.401 0 TD -0.362 Tc (nervous system, neurons with axons and )Tj -298.401 -13.6 TD -0.313 Tc (dendrites, and all the rest of)Tj 136.001 0 TD -0.389 Tc (it, sufficiently like ours, again the answer to the question seems to)Tj 314.401 0 TD -0.318 Tc (be obviously, yes. )Tj -450.402 -13.6 TD -0.345 Tc (If you can exactly duplicate the causes, you could)Tj 240.801 0 TD -0.348 Tc (duplicate the effects. And indeed it might be possible to )Tj -240.801 -13.6 TD -0.175 Tc (produce)Tj 43.2 0 TD -0.403 Tc (consciousness, intentionality, and all the rest of it using some other)Tj 318.401 0 TD -0.399 Tc (sorts of chemical principles than )Tj -361.601 -13.6 TD -0.363 Tc (those that human beings use. It is,)Tj 164.001 0 TD -0.337 Tc (as I said, an empirical question. "OK, but could a digital computer)Tj 320.001 0 TD -0.631 Tc (think?")Tj -484.002 -28.8 TD -0.444 Tc (If by "digital computer" we mean anything at all that has a level of)Tj 314.401 0 TD -0.3 Tc (description where it can correctly be )Tj -314.401 -13.6 TD -0.354 Tc (described as the instantiation of)Tj 153.601 0 TD -0.302 Tc (a computer program, then again the answer is, of course, yes, since we)Tj 343.201 0 TD -0.208 Tc (are the )Tj -496.802 -13.6 TD -0.364 Tc (instantiations of any number of computer programs, and we can)Tj 308.001 0 TD -0.519 Tc (think.)Tj -308.001 -28.8 TD -0.413 Tc ("But could something think, understand, and so on solely in virtue of)Tj 328.001 0 TD -0.372 Tc (being a computer with the right sort of )Tj -328.001 -13.6 TD -0.417 Tc (program? Could instantiating a)Tj 149.601 0 TD -0.379 Tc (program, the right program of course, by itself be a sufficient)Tj 292.801 0 TD -0.416 Tc (condition of )Tj -442.402 -13.6 TD -0.495 Tc (understanding?")Tj 0 -28.8 TD -0.436 Tc (This I think is the right question to ask, though it is usually)Tj 277.601 0 TD -0.334 Tc (confused with one or more of the earlier questions, )Tj -277.601 -13.6 TD -0.254 Tc (and the answer to)Tj 88.8 0 TD -0.406 Tc (it is no.)Tj -88.8 -28.8 TD -0.537 Tc ("Why not?")Tj 0 -28.8 TD -0.412 Tc (Because the formal symbol manipulations by themselves don't have any)Tj 344.001 0 TD -0.46 Tc (intentionality; they are quite )Tj -344.001 -13.6 TD -0.428 Tc (meaningless; they aren't even symbol)Tj 179.201 0 TD -0.448 Tc (manipulations, since the symbols don't symbolize anything. In the)Tj 312.001 0 TD -0.695 Tc (linguistic )Tj -491.202 -13.6 TD -0.363 Tc (jargon, they have only a syntax but no semantics. Such)Tj 264.801 0 TD -0.384 Tc (intentionality as computers appear to have is solely in )Tj -264.801 -13.6 TD -0.466 Tc (the minds of)Tj 61.6 0 TD -0.317 Tc (those who program them and those who use them, those who send in the)Tj 352.801 0 TD -0.333 Tc (input and those who )Tj -414.402 -13.6 TD -0.329 Tc (interpret the output.)Tj 0 -28.8 TD -0.365 Tc (The aim of the Chinese room example was to try to show this by showing)Tj 355.201 0 TD -0.306 Tc (that as soon as we put something )Tj /F2 7.2 Tf 136.001 681.603 TD 0.266 Tc (7/14/03 6:14 PM)Tj -499.202 0 TD 0.141 Tc (Minds, Brains, and Programs)Tj 510.402 -722.403 TD 0.139 Tc (Page 11 of 19)Tj -510.402 0 TD 0.28 Tc (http://www.bbsonline.org/documents/a/00/00/04/84/bbs00000484-00/bbs.searle2.html)Tj ET endstream endobj 46 0 obj 5870 endobj 44 0 obj << /Type /Page /Parent 32 0 R /Resources <> /ProcSet 2 0 R >> /Contents 45 0 R >> endobj 48 0 obj << /Length 49 0 R >> stream 0.8 w BT /F2 12.8 Tf 38 729.603 TD -0.364 Tc 0 Tw (into the system that really does have)Tj 176.001 0 TD -0.432 Tc (intentionality \(a man\), and we program him with the formal program, you)Tj -176.001 -13.6 TD -0.394 Tc (can see that the formal program carries no additional intentionality.)Tj 320.801 0 TD -0.313 Tc (It adds nothing, for example, to a man's )Tj -320.801 -13.6 TD -0.401 Tc (ability to understand)Tj 100 0 TD -0.355 Tc (Chinese.)Tj -100 -28.8 TD -0.327 Tc (Precisely that feature of AI that seemed so appealing -- the distinction)Tj 337.601 0 TD -0.344 Tc (between the program and the realization )Tj -337.601 -13.6 TD -0.293 Tc (-- proves fatal to the claim)Tj 130.401 0 TD -0.412 Tc (that simulation could be duplication. The distinction between the)Tj 308.801 0 TD -0.321 Tc (program and its )Tj -439.202 -13.6 TD -0.344 Tc (realization in the hardware seems to be parallel to the)Tj 257.601 0 TD -0.375 Tc (distinction between the level of mental operations and the )Tj -257.601 -13.6 TD -0.542 Tc (level of)Tj 37.6 0 TD -0.36 Tc (brain operations. And if we could describe the level of mental)Tj 297.601 0 TD -0.327 Tc (operations as a formal program, then it )Tj -335.201 -13.6 TD -0.277 Tc (seems we could describe what)Tj 150.401 0 TD -0.398 Tc (was essential about the mind without doing either introspective)Tj 301.601 0 TD -0.349 Tc (psychology or )Tj -452.002 -13.6 TD -0.431 Tc (neurophysiology of the brain. But the equation, "mind is)Tj 268.001 0 TD -0.249 Tc (to brain as program is to hardware" breaks down at )Tj -268.001 -13.6 TD -0.367 Tc (several points)Tj 68.8 0 TD -0.509 Tc (among them the following three:)Tj -68.8 -28.8 TD -0.367 Tc (First, the distinction between program and realization has the)Tj 293.601 0 TD -0.304 Tc (consequence that the same program could have )Tj -293.601 -13.6 TD -0.364 Tc (all sorts of crazy)Tj 81.6 0 TD -0.4 Tc (realizations that had no form of intentionality. Weizenbaum \(1976, Ch.)Tj 339.201 0 TD -0.285 Tc (2\), for example, shows )Tj -420.802 -13.6 TD -0.354 Tc (in detail how to construct a computer using a)Tj 217.601 0 TD -0.392 Tc (roll of toilet paper and a pile of small stones. Similarly, the Chinese)Tj -217.601 -13.6 TD -0.313 Tc (story understanding program can be programmed into a sequence of water)Tj 361.601 0 TD -0.285 Tc (pipes, a set of wind machines, or a )Tj -361.601 -13.6 TD -0.478 Tc (monolingual English speaker, none)Tj 168.001 0 TD -0.358 Tc (of which thereby acquires an understanding of Chinese. Stones, toilet)Tj 333.601 0 TD 0 Tc (paper, )Tj -501.602 -13.6 TD -0.324 Tc (wind, and water pipes are the wrong kind of stuff to have)Tj 277.601 0 TD -0.443 Tc (intentionality in the first place -- only something that )Tj -277.601 -13.6 TD -0.317 Tc (has the same)Tj 64.8 0 TD -0.346 Tc (causal powers as brains can have intentionality -- and though the)Tj 312.001 0 TD -0.396 Tc (English speaker has the right )Tj -376.801 -13.6 TD -0.486 Tc (kind of stuff for intentionality you can)Tj 180.001 0 TD -0.426 Tc (easily see that he doesn't get any extra intentionality by memorizing)Tj 321.601 0 TD -0.309 Tc (the )Tj -501.602 -13.6 TD -0.428 Tc (program, since memorizing it won't teach him Chinese.)Tj 0 -28.8 TD -0.348 Tc (Second, the program is purely formal, but the intentional states are)Tj 320.801 0 TD -0.4 Tc (not in that way formal. They are defined in )Tj -320.801 -13.6 TD -0.348 Tc (terms of their content, not)Tj 126.4 0 TD -0.429 Tc (their form. The belief that it is raining, for example, is not defined)Tj 311.201 0 TD -0.344 Tc (as a certain formal )Tj -437.602 -13.6 TD -0.333 Tc (shape, but as a certain mental content with)Tj 206.401 0 TD -0.319 Tc (conditions of satisfaction, a direction of fit \(see Searle 1979\), and)Tj 316.001 0 TD -0.309 Tc (the )Tj -522.402 -13.6 TD -0.346 Tc (like. Indeed the belief as such hasn't even got a formal shape in)Tj 304.001 0 TD -0.322 Tc (this syntactic sense, since one and the same )Tj -304.001 -13.6 TD -0.414 Tc (belief can be given an)Tj 106.4 0 TD -0.463 Tc (indefinite number of different syntactic expressions in different)Tj 297.601 0 TD -0.557 Tc (linguistic systems.)Tj -404.002 -28.8 TD -0.343 Tc (Third, as I mentioned before, mental states and events are literally a)Tj 326.401 0 TD -0.286 Tc (product of the operation of the brain, but )Tj -326.401 -13.6 TD -0.379 Tc (the program is not in that)Tj 122.4 0 TD -0.265 Tc (way a product of the computer.)Tj -122.4 -28.8 TD -0.367 Tc (-Well if programs are in no way constitutive of mental processes, why)Tj 337.601 0 TD -0.324 Tc (have so many people believed the )Tj -337.601 -13.6 TD -0.267 Tc (converse? That at least needs some)Tj 173.601 0 TD -0.503 Tc (explanation.")Tj -173.601 -28.8 TD -0.291 Tc (I don't really know the answer to that one. The idea that computer)Tj 320.801 0 TD -0.422 Tc (simulations could be the real thing ought to )Tj -320.801 -13.6 TD -0.394 Tc (have seemed suspicious in)Tj 128.8 0 TD -0.39 Tc (the first place because the computer isn't confined to simulating)Tj 304.001 0 TD -0.334 Tc (mental operations, by )Tj -432.802 -13.6 TD -0.257 Tc (any means. No one supposes that computer)Tj 214.401 0 TD -0.437 Tc (simulations of a five-alarm fire will burn the neighborhood down or)Tj -214.401 -13.6 TD -0.409 Tc (that a computer simulation of a rainstorm will leave us all drenched.)Tj 324.001 0 TD -0.291 Tc (Why on earth would anyone suppose that a )Tj -324.001 -13.6 TD -0.484 Tc (computer simulation of)Tj 112 0 TD -0.407 Tc (understanding actually understood anything? It is sometimes said that)Tj 332.001 0 TD -0.333 Tc (it would be )Tj -444.002 -13.6 TD -0.448 Tc (frightfully hard to get computers to feel pain or fall in)Tj 252.801 0 TD -0.314 Tc (love, but love and pain are neither harder nor easier than )Tj -252.801 -13.6 TD -0.451 Tc (cognition or)Tj 60 0 TD -0.44 Tc (anything else. For simulation, all you need is the right input and)Tj 301.601 0 TD -0.359 Tc (output and a program in the middle )Tj -361.601 -13.6 TD -0.387 Tc (that transforms the former into the)Tj 165.601 0 TD -0.366 Tc (latter. That is all the computer has for anything it does. To confuse)Tj 319.201 0 TD -0.622 Tc (simulation )Tj -484.802 -13.6 TD -0.406 Tc (with duplication is the same mistake, whether it is pain,)Tj 264.801 0 TD -0.385 Tc (love, cognition, fires, or rainstorms.)Tj -264.801 -28.8 TD -0.333 Tc (Still, there are several reasons why AI must have seemed and to many)Tj 339.201 0 TD -0.253 Tc (people perhaps still does seem -- in )Tj -339.201 -13.6 TD -0.24 Tc (some way to reproduce and thereby)Tj 177.601 0 TD -0.421 Tc (explain mental phenomena, and I believe.we will not succeed in removing)Tj -177.601 -13.6 TD -0.424 Tc (these illusions until we have fully exposed the reasons that give rise)Tj 320.801 0 TD -0.344 Tc (to them.)Tj /F2 7.2 Tf 170.401 661.603 TD 0.266 Tc (7/14/03 6:14 PM)Tj -499.202 0 TD 0.141 Tc (Minds, Brains, and Programs)Tj 510.402 -722.403 TD 0.139 Tc (Page 12 of 19)Tj -510.402 0 TD 0.28 Tc (http://www.bbsonline.org/documents/a/00/00/04/84/bbs00000484-00/bbs.searle2.html)Tj ET endstream endobj 49 0 obj 7075 endobj 47 0 obj << /Type /Page /Parent 32 0 R /Resources <> /ProcSet 2 0 R >> /Contents 48 0 R >> endobj 52 0 obj << /Length 53 0 R >> stream 0.8 w BT /F2 12.8 Tf 38 729.603 TD -0.333 Tc 0 Tw (First, and perhaps most important, is a confusion about the notion of)Tj 330.401 0 TD -0.452 Tc (information processing: many people in )Tj -330.401 -13.6 TD -0.421 Tc (cognitive science believe that)Tj 141.601 0 TD -0.442 Tc (the human brain, with its mind, does something called -information)Tj 319.201 0 TD -0.367 Tc (processing," )Tj -460.802 -13.6 TD -0.36 Tc (and analogously the computer with its program does)Tj 253.601 0 TD -0.386 Tc (information processing; but fires and rainstorms, on the )Tj -253.601 -13.6 TD -0.289 Tc (other hand,)Tj 57.6 0 TD -0.365 Tc (don't do information processing at all. Thus, though the computer can)Tj 334.401 0 TD -0.442 Tc (simulate the formal features )Tj -392.001 -13.6 TD -0.297 Tc (of any process whatever, it stands in a)Tj 186.401 0 TD -0.347 Tc (special relation to the mind and brain because when the computer is)Tj -186.401 -13.6 TD -0.351 Tc (properly programmed, ideally with the same program as the brain, the)Tj 337.601 0 TD -0.46 Tc (information processing is identical in the )Tj -337.601 -13.6 TD -0.252 Tc (two cases, and this)Tj 94.4 0 TD -0.398 Tc (information processing is really the essence of the mental. )Tj -94.4 -28.8 TD -0.438 Tc (But the trouble with this argument is that it rests on an ambiguity in)Tj 319.201 0 TD -0.392 Tc (the notion of '- information." In the sense in )Tj -319.201 -13.6 TD -0.315 Tc (which people "process)Tj 112 0 TD -0.426 Tc (information" when they reflect, say, on problems in arithmetic or when)Tj 337.601 0 TD -0.239 Tc (they read and )Tj -449.602 -13.6 TD -0.303 Tc (answer questions about stories, the programmed computer)Tj 284.801 0 TD -0.319 Tc (does not do -information processing." Rather, what )Tj -284.801 -13.6 TD -0.311 Tc (it does is)Tj 45.6 0 TD -0.396 Tc (manipulate formal symbols. The fact that the programmer and the)Tj 315.201 0 TD -0.316 Tc (interpreter of the computer output )Tj -360.801 -13.6 TD -0.276 Tc (use the symbols to stand for objects)Tj 176.001 0 TD -0.322 Tc (in the world is totally beyond the scope of the computer. The computer,)Tj 347.201 0 TD 0 Tc (to )Tj -523.202 -13.6 TD -0.339 Tc (repeat, has a syntax but no semantics. Thus, if you type into the)Tj 306.401 0 TD -0.329 Tc (computer '2 plus 2 equals?" it will type out '-4." )Tj -306.401 -13.6 TD -0.355 Tc (But it has no idea)Tj 86.4 0 TD -0.366 Tc (that -4" means 4 or that it means anything at all. And the point is not)Tj 328.001 0 TD -0.317 Tc (that it lacks some )Tj -414.402 -13.6 TD -0.333 Tc (second-order information about the interpretation of)Tj 252.801 0 TD -0.304 Tc (its first- order symbols, but rather that its first-order )Tj -252.801 -13.6 TD -0.349 Tc (symbols don't)Tj 69.6 0 TD -0.33 Tc (have any interpretations as far as the computer is concerned. All the)Tj 328.001 0 TD -0.316 Tc (computer has is more )Tj -397.602 -13.6 TD -0.386 Tc (symbols. )Tj 0 -28.8 TD -0.435 Tc (The introduction of the notion of "information processing" therefore)Tj 323.201 0 TD -0.337 Tc (produces a dilemma: either we construe the )Tj -323.201 -13.6 TD -0.556 Tc (notion of "information)Tj 106.4 0 TD -0.427 Tc (processing" in such a way that it implies intentionality as part of the)Tj 320.801 0 TD -0.165 Tc (process or we don't. If )Tj -427.202 -13.6 TD -0.314 Tc (the former, then the programmed computer does)Tj 236.801 0 TD -0.437 Tc (not do information processing, it only manipulates formal )Tj -236.801 -13.6 TD -0.436 Tc (symbols. If)Tj 56 0 TD -0.366 Tc (the latter, then, though the computer does information processing, it)Tj 325.601 0 TD -0.409 Tc (is only doing so in the sense in )Tj -381.601 -13.6 TD -0.413 Tc (which adding machines, typewriters,)Tj 176.801 0 TD -0.364 Tc (stomachs, thermostats, rainstorms, and hurricanes do information)Tj -176.801 -13.6 TD -0.375 Tc (processing; namely, they have a level of description at which we can)Tj 329.601 0 TD -0.403 Tc (describe them as taking information in at )Tj -329.601 -13.6 TD -0.382 Tc (one end, transforming it, and)Tj 140.001 0 TD -0.383 Tc (producing information as output. But in this case it is up to outside)Tj 318.401 0 TD -0.17 Tc (observers to )Tj -458.402 -13.6 TD -0.407 Tc (interpret the input and output as information in the)Tj 240.801 0 TD -0.372 Tc (ordinary sense. And no similarity is established between the )Tj -240.801 -13.6 TD -0.342 Tc (computer)Tj 48.8 0 TD -0.449 Tc (and the brain in terms of any similarity of information processing.)Tj -48.8 -28.8 TD -0.359 Tc (Second, in much of AI there is a residual behaviorism or)Tj 272.801 0 TD -0.352 Tc (operationalism. Since appropriately programmed )Tj -272.801 -13.6 TD -0.314 Tc (computers can have)Tj 99.2 0 TD -0.352 Tc (input-output patterns similar to those of human beings, we are tempted)Tj 340.801 0 TD -0.35 Tc (to postulate mental )Tj -440.002 -13.6 TD -0.434 Tc (states in the computer similar to human mental)Tj 223.201 0 TD -0.292 Tc (states. But once we see that it is both conceptually and )Tj -223.201 -13.6 TD -0.644 Tc (empirically)Tj 54.4 0 TD -0.382 Tc (possible for a system to have human capacities in some realm without)Tj 335.201 0 TD -0.53 Tc (having any intentionality at all, )Tj -389.601 -13.6 TD -0.299 Tc (we should be able to overcome this)Tj 173.601 0 TD -0.388 Tc (impulse. My desk adding machine has calculating capacities, but no)Tj -173.601 -13.6 TD -0.366 Tc (intentionality, and in this paper I have tried to show that a system)Tj 312.801 0 TD -0.374 Tc (could have input and output capabilities that )Tj -312.801 -13.6 TD -0.299 Tc (duplicated those of a)Tj 103.2 0 TD -0.331 Tc (native Chinese speaker and still not understand Chinese, regardless of)Tj 337.601 0 TD -0.315 Tc (how it was )Tj -440.802 -13.6 TD -0.416 Tc (programmed. The Turing test is typical of the tradition in)Tj 272.001 0 TD -0.42 Tc (being unashamedly behavioristic and operationalistic, )Tj -272.001 -13.6 TD -0.346 Tc (and I believe)Tj 64.8 0 TD -0.375 Tc (that if AI workers totally repudiated behaviorism and operationalism)Tj 329.601 0 TD -0.455 Tc (much of the confusion )Tj -394.402 -13.6 TD -0.41 Tc (between simulation and duplication would be)Tj 218.401 0 TD -0.548 Tc (eliminated.)Tj -218.401 -28.8 TD -0.402 Tc (Third, this residual operationalism is joined to a residual form of)Tj 307.201 0 TD -0.365 Tc (dualism; indeed strong AI only makes sense )Tj -307.201 -13.6 TD -0.518 Tc (given the dualistic)Tj 87.2 0 TD -0.324 Tc (assumption that, where the mind is concerned, the brain doesn't matter.)Tj 344.001 0 TD -0.346 Tc (In strong AI \(and in )Tj -431.202 -13.6 TD -0.389 Tc (functionalism, as well\) what matters are programs,)Tj 243.201 0 TD -0.375 Tc (and programs are independent of their realization in )Tj -243.201 -13.6 TD -0.401 Tc (machines; indeed,)Tj 88.8 0 TD -0.283 Tc (as far as AI is concerned, the same program could be realized by an)Tj 330.401 0 TD -0.377 Tc (electronic machine, a )Tj -419.202 -13.6 TD -0.335 Tc (Cartesian mental substance, or a Hegelian world)Tj 235.201 0 TD -0.412 Tc (spirit. The single most surprising discovery that I have made in)Tj -235.201 -13.6 TD -0.336 Tc (discussing these issues is that many AI workers are quite shocked by my)Tj 351.201 0 TD -0.425 Tc (idea that actual human mental )Tj -351.201 -13.6 TD -0.361 Tc (phenomena might be dependent on actual)Tj 202.401 0 TD -0.41 Tc (physical/chemical properties of actual human brains.)Tj -202.401 -28.8 TD -0.383 Tc (But if you think about it a minute you can see that I should not have)Tj 324.801 0 TD -0.29 Tc (been surprised; for unless you accept some )Tj /F2 7.2 Tf 166.401 685.603 TD 0.266 Tc (7/14/03 6:14 PM)Tj -499.202 0 TD 0.141 Tc (Minds, Brains, and Programs)Tj 510.402 -722.403 TD 0.139 Tc (Page 13 of 19)Tj -510.402 0 TD 0.28 Tc (http://www.bbsonline.org/documents/a/00/00/04/84/bbs00000484-00/bbs.searle2.html)Tj ET endstream endobj 53 0 obj 7855 endobj 50 0 obj << /Type /Page /Parent 51 0 R /Resources <> /ProcSet 2 0 R >> /Contents 52 0 R >> endobj 55 0 obj << /Length 56 0 R >> stream 0.8 w BT /F2 12.8 Tf 38 729.603 TD -0.434 Tc 0 Tw (form of dualism, the strong)Tj 131.201 0 TD -0.253 Tc (AI project hasn't got a chance. The project is to reproduce and explain)Tj 344.001 0 TD -0.443 Tc (the mental )Tj -475.202 -13.6 TD -0.431 Tc (by designing programs, but unless the mind is not only)Tj 260.801 0 TD -0.414 Tc (conceptually but empirically independent of the brain you )Tj -260.801 -13.6 TD -0.388 Tc (couldn't)Tj 40.8 0 TD -0.327 Tc (carry out the project, for the program is completely independent of any)Tj 343.201 0 TD -0.432 Tc (realization. Unless you believe )Tj -384.001 -13.6 TD -0.369 Tc (that the mind is separable from the)Tj 168.001 0 TD -0.373 Tc (brain both conceptually and empirically -- dualism in a strong form --)Tj 333.601 0 TD -0.4 Tc (you )Tj -501.602 -13.6 TD -0.367 Tc (cannot hope to reproduce the mental by writing and running programs)Tj 337.601 0 TD -0.338 Tc (since programs must be independent of )Tj -337.601 -13.6 TD (brains or any other particular)Tj 141.601 0 TD -0.429 Tc (forms of instantiation. If mental operations consist in computational)Tj 321.601 0 TD -0.266 Tc (operations on )Tj -463.202 -13.6 TD -0.427 Tc (formal symbols, then it follows that they have no)Tj 233.601 0 TD -0.424 Tc (interesting connection with the brain; the only connection )Tj -233.601 -13.6 TD -0.31 Tc (would be)Tj 48 0 TD -0.371 Tc (that the brain just happens to be one of the indefinitely many types of)Tj 332.001 0 TD -0.44 Tc (machines capable of instantiating )Tj -380.001 -13.6 TD -0.292 Tc (the program. )Tj 0 -28.8 TD -0.422 Tc (This form of dualism is not the traditional Cartesian variety that)Tj 302.401 0 TD -0.287 Tc (claims there are two sorts of substances, but it )Tj -302.401 -13.6 TD -0.383 Tc (is Cartesian in the)Tj 88 0 TD -0.424 Tc (sense that it insists that what is specifically mental about the mind)Tj 312.001 0 TD -0.427 Tc (has no intrinsic connection )Tj -400.002 -13.6 TD -0.338 Tc (with the actual properties of the brain.)Tj 184.801 0 TD -0.429 Tc (This underlying dualism is masked from us by the fact that AI)Tj 295.201 0 TD -0.418 Tc (literature )Tj -480.002 -13.6 TD -0.465 Tc (contains frequent fulminations against "dualism'-; what the)Tj 277.601 0 TD -0.326 Tc (authors seem to be unaware of is that their position )Tj -277.601 -13.6 TD -0.142 Tc (presupposes a)Tj 72.8 0 TD -0.434 Tc (strong version of dualism.)Tj -72.8 -28.8 TD ("Could a machine think?" My own view is that only a machine could)Tj 328.801 0 TD -0.374 Tc (think, and indeed only very special kinds )Tj -328.801 -13.6 TD -0.46 Tc (of machines, namely brains)Tj 132.001 0 TD -0.309 Tc (and machines that had the same causal powers as brains. And that is)Tj 331.201 0 TD -0.492 Tc (the main )Tj -463.202 -13.6 TD -0.378 Tc (reason strong AI has had little to tell us about thinking,)Tj 263.201 0 TD -0.399 Tc (since it has nothing to tell us about machines. By its own )Tj -263.201 -13.6 TD -0.597 Tc (definition,)Tj 49.6 0 TD -0.309 Tc (it is about programs, and programs are not machines. Whatever else)Tj 330.401 0 TD -0.498 Tc (intentionality is, it is a biological )Tj -380.001 -13.6 TD -0.415 Tc (phenomenon, and it is as likely)Tj 149.601 0 TD -0.369 Tc (to be as causally dependent on the specific biochemistry of its origins)Tj 332.801 0 TD 0 Tc (as )Tj -482.402 -13.6 TD -0.34 Tc (lactation, photosynthesis, or any other biological phenomena. No one)Tj 335.201 0 TD -0.251 Tc (would suppose that we could produce )Tj -335.201 -13.6 TD -0.473 Tc (milk and sugar by running a)Tj 134.401 0 TD -0.413 Tc (computer simulation of the formal sequences in lactation and)Tj 291.201 0 TD -0.343 Tc (photosynthesis, but )Tj -425.602 -13.6 TD -0.328 Tc (where the mind is concerned many people are)Tj 224.001 0 TD -0.39 Tc (willing to believe in such a miracle because of a deep and abiding)Tj -224.001 -13.6 TD -0.363 Tc (dualism: the mind they suppose is a matter of formal processes and is)Tj 333.601 0 TD -0.404 Tc (independent of quite specific material )Tj -333.601 -13.6 TD -0.383 Tc (causes in the way that milk and)Tj 152.001 0 TD -0.265 Tc (sugar are not.)Tj -152.001 -28.8 TD -0.348 Tc (In defense of this dualism the hope is often expressed that the brain)Tj 324.001 0 TD -0.354 Tc (is a digital computer \(early computers, by )Tj -324.001 -13.6 TD -0.319 Tc (the way, were often called)Tj 129.6 0 TD -0.355 Tc ("electronic brains"\). But that is no help. Of course the brain is a)Tj 304.801 0 TD -0.414 Tc (digital computer. )Tj -434.402 -13.6 TD -0.395 Tc (Since everything is a digital computer, brains are)Tj 234.401 0 TD -0.284 Tc (too. The point is that the brain's causal capacity to produce)Tj -234.401 -13.6 TD -0.443 Tc (intentionality cannot consist in its instantiating a computer program,)Tj 321.601 0 TD -0.38 Tc (since for any program you like it is possible )Tj -321.601 -13.6 TD -0.438 Tc (for something to)Tj 80.8 0 TD -0.373 Tc (instantiate that program and still not have any mental states. Whatever)Tj 336.801 0 TD -0.317 Tc (it is that the brain does )Tj -417.602 -13.6 TD -0.387 Tc (to produce intentionality, it cannot consist)Tj 201.601 0 TD -0.452 Tc (in instantiating a program since no program, by itself, is sufficient)Tj 310.401 0 TD -0.331 Tc (for )Tj -512.002 -13.6 TD -0.604 Tc (intentionality.)Tj /F3 19.2 Tf 0 -34.4 TD -0.191 Tc (ACKNOWLEDGMENT)Tj /F2 12.8 Tf 0 -30.4 TD -0.297 Tc (I am indebted to a rather large number of people for)Tj 253.601 0 TD -0.336 Tc (discussion of these matters and for their patient attempts )Tj -253.601 -13.6 TD -0.256 Tc (to overcome)Tj 64 0 TD -0.471 Tc (my ignorance of artificial intelligence. I would especially like to)Tj 300.801 0 TD -0.276 Tc (thank Ned Block, Hubert Dreyfus, )Tj -364.801 -13.6 TD -0.295 Tc (John Haugeland, Roger Schank, Robert)Tj 195.201 0 TD -0.357 Tc (Wilensky, and Terry Winograd.)Tj /F3 19.2 Tf -195.201 -34.4 TD -0.218 Tc (NOTES)Tj /F2 12.8 Tf 14.4 -30.4 TD 0 Tc (1.)Tj 17.6 0 TD -0.367 Tc (I am not, of course, saying that Schank himself is committed to these)Tj 331.201 0 TD -0.545 Tc (claims.)Tj -348.801 -28.8 TD 0 Tc (2.)Tj 17.6 0 TD -0.425 Tc (Also, "understanding" implies both the possession of mental)Tj 287.201 0 TD -0.412 Tc (\(intentional\) states and the truth \(validity, )Tj -287.201 -13.6 TD -0.235 Tc (success\) of these states)Tj 115.2 0 TD -0.317 Tc (For the purposes of this discussion we are concerned only with the)Tj 323.201 0 TD -0.273 Tc (possession of )Tj -438.402 -13.6 TD -0.225 Tc (the states.)Tj /F2 7.2 Tf 459.202 691.203 TD 0.266 Tc (7/14/03 6:14 PM)Tj -499.202 0 TD 0.141 Tc (Minds, Brains, and Programs)Tj 510.402 -722.403 TD 0.139 Tc (Page 14 of 19)Tj -510.402 0 TD 0.28 Tc (http://www.bbsonline.org/documents/a/00/00/04/84/bbs00000484-00/bbs.searle2.html)Tj ET endstream endobj 56 0 obj 6751 endobj 54 0 obj << /Type /Page /Parent 51 0 R /Resources <> /ProcSet 2 0 R >> /Contents 55 0 R >> endobj 58 0 obj << /Length 59 0 R >> stream 0.8 w BT /F2 12.8 Tf 52.4 726.403 TD 0 Tc 0 Tw (3.)Tj 17.6 0 TD -0.463 Tc (Intentionality is by definition that feature of certain mental)Tj 275.201 0 TD -0.255 Tc (states by which they are directed at or about )Tj -275.201 -13.6 TD -0.202 Tc (objects and states of)Tj 102.4 0 TD -0.375 Tc (affairs in the world. Thus, beliefs, desires, and intentions are)Tj 288.801 0 TD -0.417 Tc (intentional states; )Tj -391.201 -13.6 TD -0.326 Tc (undirected forms of anxiety and depression are not.)Tj 249.601 0 TD -0.259 Tc (For further discussion see Searle \(1979c\).)Tj /F3 19.2 Tf -281.601 -34.4 TD -0.109 Tc (REFERENCES)Tj /F2 12.8 Tf 0 -30.4 TD -0.268 Tc (Anderson, J. \(1980\) Cognitive units. Paper presented at the Society for)Tj 346.401 0 TD -0.396 Tc (Philosophy and Psychology, Ann )Tj -346.401 -13.6 TD -0.217 Tc (Arbor, Mich. [RCS])Tj 0 -28.8 TD -0.363 Tc (Block, N. J. \(1978\) Troubles with functionalism. In: Minnesota studies)Tj 340.801 0 TD -0.325 Tc (in the philosophy of science, vol. 9, ed. )Tj -340.801 -13.6 TD -0.32 Tc (C. W. Savage, Minneapolis:)Tj 139.201 0 TD -0.33 Tc (University of Minnesota Press. [NB, WGL])Tj -139.201 -28.8 TD -0.426 Tc (\(forthcoming\) Psychologism and behaviorism. Philosophical Review. [NB,)Tj 358.401 0 TD -0.352 Tc (WGL])Tj -358.401 -28.8 TD -0.23 Tc (Bower, G. 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UH, GM,)Tj 355.201 0 TD -0.145 Tc (TN, JRS])Tj /F2 7.2 Tf 136.001 691.203 TD 0.266 Tc (7/14/03 6:14 PM)Tj -499.202 0 TD 0.141 Tc (Minds, Brains, and Programs)Tj 510.402 -722.403 TD 0.139 Tc (Page 18 of 19)Tj -510.402 0 TD 0.28 Tc (http://www.bbsonline.org/documents/a/00/00/04/84/bbs00000484-00/bbs.searle2.html)Tj ET endstream endobj 68 0 obj 4161 endobj 66 0 obj << /Type /Page /Parent 51 0 R /Resources <> /ProcSet 2 0 R >> /Contents 67 0 R >> endobj 71 0 obj << /Length 72 0 R >> stream 0.8 w BT /F2 12.8 Tf 38 726.403 TD -0.326 Tc 0 Tw (Sherrington, C. S. \(1950\) Introductory. In: The physical basis of mind,)Tj 341.601 0 TD -0.331 Tc (ed. P. Laslett, Oxford: Basil Blackwell. )Tj -341.601 -13.6 TD -0.212 Tc ([JCE])Tj 0 -28.8 TD -0.176 Tc (Slate, J. S. & Atkin, L. R. \(1977\) CHESS 4.5 - the Northwestern)Tj 322.401 0 TD -0.416 Tc (University chess program. In: Chess skill in )Tj -322.401 -13.6 TD -0.275 Tc (man and machine, ed. P. W.)Tj 140.001 0 TD -0.305 Tc (Frey. New York, Heidelberg, Berlin: Springer Verlag. Sloman, A. \(1978\))Tj 357.601 0 TD -0.375 Tc (The )Tj -497.602 -13.6 TD -0.38 Tc (computer resolution in phylosophy Harvester Press and Humanities)Tj 324.801 0 TD -0.138 Tc (Press. [AS])Tj -324.801 -28.8 TD -0.365 Tc (______. \(1979\) The primacy of non-communicative language. In: The)Tj 339.201 0 TD -0.426 Tc (analysis of meaning \(informatics s\)> ed. )Tj -339.201 -13.6 TD -0.228 Tc (M. McCafferty & K. Gray.)Tj 136.001 0 TD -0.337 Tc (London: ASLIB and British Computer Society. [AS])Tj -136.001 -28.8 TD -0.243 Tc (Smith, E. E.; Adams, N.; & Schorr, D. \(1978\) Fact retrieval and the)Tj 332.801 0 TD -0.349 Tc (paradox of interference. Cognition )Tj -332.801 -13.6 TD -0.218 Tc (Psychology 10:438-64. [RCS])Tj 0 -28.8 TD -0.322 Tc (Smythe, W. 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