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pk size vs. sig size (log–log scale)
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Performance note:
Cycle counts are from our own benchmarks on a 12th Gen Intel(R) Core(TM) i7-12650H — see the environment details below.
| Assumption | ||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ECDSA | Pre-Quantum | Classic | P-256 | N/A | 65 | 72 | 137 | 36.3 µs | 107.2 µs | Elliptic Curves |
| ECDSA | Pre-Quantum | Classic | P-384 | N/A | 97 | 104 | 201 | 754.1 µs | 647.7 µs | Elliptic Curves |
| ECDSA | Pre-Quantum | Classic | P-521 | N/A | 133 | 139 | 272 | 1.76 ms | 1.40 ms | Elliptic Curves |
| EdDSA | Pre-Quantum | Classic | Ed25519 | N/A | 32 | 64 | 96 | 42.0 µs | 110.6 µs | Elliptic Curves |
| EdDSA | Pre-Quantum | Classic | Ed448 | N/A | 57 | 114 | 171 | 194.9 µs | 165.2 µs | Elliptic Curves |
| FAEST | Symmetric | On-ramp | 128s | 1 | 32 | 4,506 | 4,538 | 4.91 ms | 4.03 ms | AES |
| FAEST | Symmetric | On-ramp | 128f | 1 | 32 | 5,924 | 5,956 | 594.4 µs | 488.0 µs | AES |
| FAEST | Symmetric | On-ramp | EM-128s | 1 | 32 | 3,906 | 3,938 | 2.96 ms | 2.42 ms | AES |
| FAEST | Symmetric | On-ramp | EM-128f | 1 | 32 | 5,060 | 5,092 | 546.5 µs | 458.3 µs | AES |
| FAEST | Symmetric | On-ramp | 192s | 3 | 48 | 11,260 | 11,308 | 19.14 ms | 16.30 ms | AES |
| FAEST | Symmetric | On-ramp | 192f | 3 | 48 | 14,948 | 14,996 | 2.47 ms | 2.27 ms | AES |
| FAEST | Symmetric | On-ramp | EM-192s | 3 | 48 | 9,340 | 9,388 | 14.33 ms | 13.52 ms | AES |
| FAEST | Symmetric | On-ramp | EM-192f | 3 | 48 | 12,380 | 12,428 | 1.69 ms | 1.57 ms | AES |
| FAEST | Symmetric | On-ramp | 256s | 5 | 48 | 20,696 | 20,744 | 28.34 ms | 28.85 ms | AES |
| FAEST | Symmetric | On-ramp | 256f | 5 | 48 | 26,548 | 26,596 | 3.41 ms | 3.32 ms | AES |
| FAEST | Symmetric | On-ramp | EM-256s | 5 | 64 | 17,984 | 18,048 | 22.09 ms | 20.69 ms | AES |
| FAEST | Symmetric | On-ramp | EM-256f | 5 | 64 | 23,476 | 23,540 | 3.00 ms | 2.96 ms | AES |
| Falcon | Lattices | Std pending | 1024 | 5 | 1,793 | 1,280 | 3,073 | 448.2 µs | 44.9 µs | NTRU-SIS |
| Falcon | Lattices | Std pending | 512 | 1 | 897 | 666 | 1,563 | 224.4 µs | 23.3 µs | NTRU-SIS |
| HAWK | Lattices | On-ramp | 1024 | 5 | 2,440 | 1,221 | 3,661 | 58.6 µs | 67.0 µs | Lattice Isomorphism |
| HAWK | Lattices | On-ramp | 512 | 1 | 1,024 | 555 | 1,579 | 26.8 µs | 31.6 µs | Lattice Isomorphism |
| MAYO | Multivariate | On-ramp | five | 5 | 5,554 | 964 | 6,518 | 999.4 µs | 425.8 µs | Multivariate Quadratic |
| MAYO | Multivariate | On-ramp | three | 3 | 2,986 | 681 | 3,667 | 496.9 µs | 217.7 µs | Multivariate Quadratic |
| MAYO | Multivariate | On-ramp | two | 1 | 4,912 | 186 | 5,098 | 120.7 µs | 21.5 µs | Multivariate Quadratic |
| MAYO | Multivariate | On-ramp | one | 1 | 1,420 | 454 | 1,874 | 244.0 µs | 110.9 µs | Multivariate Quadratic |
| ML-DSA | Lattices | FIPS | ML-DSA-87 | 5 | 2,592 | 4,627 | 7,219 | 136.0 µs | 73.0 µs | MLWE/MSIS |
| ML-DSA | Lattices | FIPS | ML-DSA-65 | 3 | 1,952 | 3,309 | 5,261 | 107.5 µs | 46.1 µs | MLWE/MSIS |
| ML-DSA | Lattices | FIPS | ML-DSA-44 | 2 | 1,312 | 2,420 | 3,732 | 61.9 µs | 27.2 µs | MLWE/MSIS |
| MQOM | MPCitH | On-ramp | L1-gf2-short-3r | 1 | 52 | 2,868 | 2,920 | 2.72 ms | 2.24 ms | Multivariate Quadratic |
| MQOM | MPCitH | On-ramp | L1-gf2-short-5r | 1 | 52 | 2,820 | 2,872 | 2.80 ms | 2.32 ms | Multivariate Quadratic |
| MQOM | MPCitH | On-ramp | L1-gf16-short-3r | 1 | 60 | 3,060 | 3,120 | 2.85 ms | 2.05 ms | Multivariate Quadratic |
| MQOM | MPCitH | On-ramp | L1-gf16-short-5r | 1 | 60 | 2,916 | 2,976 | 2.61 ms | 2.13 ms | Multivariate Quadratic |
| MQOM | MPCitH | On-ramp | L1-gf256-short-3r | 1 | 80 | 3,540 | 3,620 | 3.32 ms | 2.18 ms | Multivariate Quadratic |
| MQOM | MPCitH | On-ramp | L1-gf256-short-5r | 1 | 80 | 3,156 | 3,236 | 2.81 ms | 1.82 ms | Multivariate Quadratic |
| MQOM | MPCitH | On-ramp | L1-gf2-fast-3r | 1 | 52 | 3,212 | 3,264 | 1.52 ms | 1.24 ms | Multivariate Quadratic |
| MQOM | MPCitH | On-ramp | L1-gf2-fast-5r | 1 | 52 | 3,144 | 3,196 | 1.39 ms | 1.22 ms | Multivariate Quadratic |
| MQOM | MPCitH | On-ramp | L1-gf16-fast-3r | 1 | 60 | 3,484 | 3,544 | 850.9 µs | 678.7 µs | Multivariate Quadratic |
| MQOM | MPCitH | On-ramp | L1-gf16-fast-5r | 1 | 60 | 3,280 | 3,340 | 810.4 µs | 662.4 µs | Multivariate Quadratic |
| MQOM | MPCitH | On-ramp | L1-gf256-fast-3r | 1 | 80 | 4,164 | 4,244 | 1.22 ms | 966.0 µs | Multivariate Quadratic |
| MQOM | MPCitH | On-ramp | L1-gf256-fast-5r | 1 | 80 | 3,620 | 3,700 | 1.15 ms | 860.6 µs | Multivariate Quadratic |
| MQOM | MPCitH | On-ramp | L3-gf2-short-3r | 3 | 78 | 6,388 | 6,466 | 14.75 ms | 12.41 ms | Multivariate Quadratic |
| MQOM | MPCitH | On-ramp | L3-gf2-short-5r | 3 | 78 | 6,280 | 6,358 | 14.53 ms | 13.36 ms | Multivariate Quadratic |
| MQOM | MPCitH | On-ramp | L3-gf16-short-3r | 3 | 90 | 6,820 | 6,910 | 13.44 ms | 10.98 ms | Multivariate Quadratic |
| MQOM | MPCitH | On-ramp | L3-gf16-short-5r | 3 | 90 | 6,496 | 6,586 | 12.31 ms | 11.35 ms | Multivariate Quadratic |
| MQOM | MPCitH | On-ramp | L3-gf256-short-3r | 3 | 120 | 7,900 | 8,020 | 15.77 ms | 12.75 ms | Multivariate Quadratic |
| MQOM | MPCitH | On-ramp | L3-gf256-short-5r | 3 | 120 | 7,036 | 7,156 | 11.91 ms | 9.63 ms | Multivariate Quadratic |
| MQOM | MPCitH | On-ramp | L3-gf2-fast-3r | 3 | 78 | 7,576 | 7,654 | 6.55 ms | 6.42 ms | Multivariate Quadratic |
| MQOM | MPCitH | On-ramp | L3-gf2-fast-5r | 3 | 78 | 7,414 | 7,492 | 6.46 ms | 6.17 ms | Multivariate Quadratic |
| MQOM | MPCitH | On-ramp | L3-gf16-fast-3r | 3 | 90 | 8,224 | 8,314 | 3.82 ms | 3.43 ms | Multivariate Quadratic |
| MQOM | MPCitH | On-ramp | L3-gf16-fast-5r | 3 | 90 | 7,738 | 7,828 | 3.73 ms | 3.56 ms | Multivariate Quadratic |
| MQOM | MPCitH | On-ramp | L3-gf256-fast-3r | 3 | 120 | 9,844 | 9,964 | 4.84 ms | 4.45 ms | Multivariate Quadratic |
| MQOM | MPCitH | On-ramp | L3-gf256-fast-5r | 3 | 120 | 8,548 | 8,668 | 4.28 ms | 3.74 ms | Multivariate Quadratic |
| MQOM | MPCitH | On-ramp | L5-gf2-short-3r | 5 | 104 | 11,764 | 11,868 | 22.05 ms | 19.12 ms | Multivariate Quadratic |
| MQOM | MPCitH | On-ramp | L5-gf2-short-5r | 5 | 104 | 11,564 | 11,668 | 22.02 ms | 19.57 ms | Multivariate Quadratic |
| MQOM | MPCitH | On-ramp | L5-gf16-short-3r | 5 | 122 | 12,664 | 12,786 | 18.60 ms | 16.14 ms | Multivariate Quadratic |
| MQOM | MPCitH | On-ramp | L5-gf16-short-5r | 5 | 122 | 12,014 | 12,136 | 18.98 ms | 18.44 ms | Multivariate Quadratic |
| MQOM | MPCitH | On-ramp | L5-gf256-short-3r | 5 | 160 | 14,564 | 14,724 | 22.71 ms | 18.38 ms | Multivariate Quadratic |
| MQOM | MPCitH | On-ramp | L5-gf256-short-5r | 5 | 160 | 12,964 | 13,124 | 19.00 ms | 15.38 ms | Multivariate Quadratic |
| MQOM | MPCitH | On-ramp | L5-gf2-fast-3r | 5 | 104 | 13,412 | 13,516 | 13.15 ms | 11.98 ms | Multivariate Quadratic |
| MQOM | MPCitH | On-ramp | L5-gf2-fast-5r | 5 | 104 | 13,124 | 13,228 | 12.75 ms | 11.68 ms | Multivariate Quadratic |
| MQOM | MPCitH | On-ramp | L5-gf16-fast-3r | 5 | 122 | 14,708 | 14,830 | 7.01 ms | 6.59 ms | Multivariate Quadratic |
| MQOM | MPCitH | On-ramp | L5-gf16-fast-5r | 5 | 122 | 13,772 | 13,894 | 7.19 ms | 6.91 ms | Multivariate Quadratic |
| MQOM | MPCitH | On-ramp | L5-gf256-fast-3r | 5 | 160 | 17,444 | 17,604 | 9.15 ms | 8.03 ms | Multivariate Quadratic |
| MQOM | MPCitH | On-ramp | L5-gf256-fast-5r | 5 | 160 | 15,140 | 15,300 | 7.67 ms | 6.71 ms | Multivariate Quadratic |
| QR-UOV | Multivariate | On-ramp | I-(127 156 54 3) | 1 | 24,255 | 200 | 24,455 | 2.55 ms | 2.19 ms | UOV |
| QR-UOV | Multivariate | On-ramp | I-(31 165 60 3) | 1 | 23,641 | 157 | 23,798 | 2.84 ms | 2.43 ms | UOV |
| QR-UOV | Multivariate | On-ramp | I-(31 600 70 10) | 1 | 12,266 | 435 | 12,701 | 12.90 ms | 12.53 ms | UOV |
| QR-UOV | Multivariate | On-ramp | I-(7 740 100 10) | 1 | 20,641 | 331 | 20,972 | 33.84 ms | 32.69 ms | UOV |
| QR-UOV | Multivariate | On-ramp | III-(127 228 78 3) | 3 | 71,891 | 292 | 72,183 | 6.24 ms | 5.43 ms | UOV |
| QR-UOV | Multivariate | On-ramp | III-(31 246 87 3) | 3 | 70,983 | 232 | 71,215 | 8.93 ms | 8.03 ms | UOV |
| QR-UOV | Multivariate | On-ramp | III-(31 890 100 10) | 3 | 34,399 | 643 | 35,042 | 41.15 ms | 39.52 ms | UOV |
| QR-UOV | Multivariate | On-ramp | III-(7 1100 140 10) | 3 | 55,149 | 489 | 55,638 | 110.55 ms | 107.35 ms | UOV |
| QR-UOV | Multivariate | On-ramp | V-(127 306 105 3) | 5 | 173,676 | 392 | 174,068 | 16.91 ms | 14.45 ms | UOV |
| QR-UOV | Multivariate | On-ramp | V-(31 1120 120 10) | 5 | 58,532 | 807 | 59,339 | 80.28 ms | 77.39 ms | UOV |
| QR-UOV | Multivariate | On-ramp | V-(31 324 114 3) | 5 | 158,421 | 306 | 158,727 | 20.39 ms | 18.29 ms | UOV |
| QR-UOV | Multivariate | On-ramp | V-(7 1490 190 10) | 5 | 135,407 | 662 | 136,069 | 283.79 ms | 264.33 ms | UOV |
| RSA | Pre-Quantum | Classic | 2048 | N/A | 272 | 256 | 528 | 981.4 µs | 27.0 µs | Factoring |
| RSA | Pre-Quantum | Classic | 3072 | N/A | 422 | 384 | 806 | 2.54 ms | 53.3 µs | Factoring |
| RSA | Pre-Quantum | Classic | 4096 | N/A | 550 | 512 | 1,062 | 5.29 ms | 80.9 µs | Factoring |
| SDitH | MPCitH | On-ramp | SDitH2-L1-gf2-short | 1 | 70 | 3,705 | 3,775 | 10.71 ms | 9.33 ms | Synd. Dec. |
| SDitH | MPCitH | On-ramp | SDitH2-L1-gf2-fast | 1 | 70 | 4,484 | 4,554 | 3.53 ms | 3.21 ms | Synd. Dec. |
| SDitH | MPCitH | On-ramp | SDitH2-L3-gf2-short | 3 | 98 | 7,964 | 8,062 | 63.76 ms | 61.65 ms | Synd. Dec. |
| SDitH | MPCitH | On-ramp | SDitH2-L3-gf2-fast | 3 | 98 | 9,916 | 10,014 | 9.95 ms | 9.32 ms | Synd. Dec. |
| SDitH | MPCitH | On-ramp | SDitH2-L5-gf2-short | 5 | 132 | 14,121 | 14,253 | 93.79 ms | 89.58 ms | Synd. Dec. |
| SDitH | MPCitH | On-ramp | SDitH2-L5-gf2-fast | 5 | 132 | 17,540 | 17,672 | 15.66 ms | 14.46 ms | Synd. Dec. |
| SLH-DSA | Symmetric | FIPS | SHAKE-192s | 3 | 48 | 16,224 | 16,272 | 1.61 s | 1.32 ms | Hash-based |
| SLH-DSA | Symmetric | FIPS | SHAKE-256s | 5 | 64 | 29,792 | 29,856 | 1.47 s | 1.91 ms | Hash-based |
| SLH-DSA | Symmetric | FIPS | SHAKE-128s | 1 | 32 | 7,856 | 7,888 | 955.96 ms | 912.7 µs | Hash-based |
| SLH-DSA | Symmetric | FIPS | SHAKE-256f | 5 | 64 | 49,856 | 49,920 | 148.32 ms | 3.95 ms | Hash-based |
| SLH-DSA | Symmetric | FIPS | SHAKE-192f | 3 | 48 | 35,664 | 35,712 | 81.88 ms | 4.40 ms | Hash-based |
| SLH-DSA | Symmetric | FIPS | SHAKE-128f | 1 | 32 | 17,088 | 17,120 | 43.14 ms | 2.49 ms | Hash-based |
| SNOVA | Multivariate | On-ramp | SNOVA-60-10-16-4 | 5 | 8,016 | 576 | 8,592 | 3.33 ms | 944.1 µs | Non-comm. Ring UOV |
| SNOVA | Multivariate | On-ramp | SNOVA-50-9-19-4 | 5 | 3,213 | 520 | 3,733 | 1.22 ms | 560.8 µs | Non-comm. Ring UOV |
| SNOVA | Multivariate | On-ramp | SNOVA-97-33-16-2 | 5 | 71,890 | 276 | 72,166 | 8.96 ms | 1.74 ms | Non-comm. Ring UOV |
| SNOVA | Multivariate | On-ramp | SNOVA-37-8-16-4 | 3 | 4,112 | 376 | 4,488 | 1.12 ms | 314.8 µs | Non-comm. Ring UOV |
| SNOVA | Multivariate | On-ramp | SNOVA-40-7-19-4 | 3 | 1,532 | 418 | 1,950 | 673.9 µs | 321.9 µs | Non-comm. Ring UOV |
| SNOVA | Multivariate | On-ramp | SNOVA-72-25-16-2 | 3 | 31,266 | 210 | 31,476 | 3.12 ms | 696.9 µs | Non-comm. Ring UOV |
| SNOVA | Multivariate | On-ramp | SNOVA-38-5-16-4x5 | 3 | 1,416 | 446 | 1,862 | 839.3 µs | 451.9 µs | Non-comm. Ring UOV |
| SNOVA | Multivariate | On-ramp | SNOVA-38-5-19-4x5 | 3 | 800 | 475 | 1,275 | 781.7 µs | 310.7 µs | Non-comm. Ring UOV |
| SNOVA | Multivariate | On-ramp | SNOVA-24-5-16-4 | 1 | 1,016 | 248 | 1,264 | 387.9 µs | 103.5 µs | Non-comm. Ring UOV |
| SNOVA | Multivariate | On-ramp | SNOVA-28-5-19-4 | 1 | 576 | 298 | 874 | 238.7 µs | 112.0 µs | Non-comm. Ring UOV |
| SNOVA | Multivariate | On-ramp | SNOVA-48-17-16-2 | 1 | 9,842 | 146 | 9,988 | 866.0 µs | 203.7 µs | Non-comm. Ring UOV |
| SNOVA | Multivariate | On-ramp | SNOVA-48-16-19-2 | 1 | 4,522 | 153 | 4,675 | 395.5 µs | 208.2 µs | Non-comm. Ring UOV |
| SNOVA | Multivariate | On-ramp | SNOVA-28-4-16-4x5 | 1 | 656 | 336 | 992 | 395.4 µs | 200.5 µs | Non-comm. Ring UOV |
| SNOVA | Multivariate | On-ramp | SNOVA-28-4-19-4x5 | 1 | 379 | 358 | 737 | 357.8 µs | 130.4 µs | Non-comm. Ring UOV |
| SQIsign | Isogenies | On-ramp | V | 5 | 129 | 292 | 421 | 232.10 ms | 18.84 ms | Isogenies |
| SQIsign | Isogenies | On-ramp | III | 3 | 97 | 224 | 321 | 135.10 ms | 9.46 ms | Isogenies |
| SQIsign | Isogenies | On-ramp | I | 1 | 65 | 148 | 213 | 50.15 ms | 3.51 ms | Isogenies |
| UOV | Multivariate | On-ramp | V-pkc | 5 | 446,992 | 260 | 447,252 | 210.7 µs | 563.0 µs | UOV |
| UOV | Multivariate | On-ramp | V-classic | 5 | 2,869,440 | 260 | 2,869,700 | 193.5 µs | 184.2 µs | UOV |
| UOV | Multivariate | On-ramp | III-pkc | 3 | 189,232 | 200 | 189,432 | 94.3 µs | 238.8 µs | UOV |
| UOV | Multivariate | On-ramp | III-classic | 3 | 1,225,440 | 200 | 1,225,640 | 100.2 µs | 88.3 µs | UOV |
| UOV | Multivariate | On-ramp | Is-pkc | 1 | 66,576 | 96 | 66,672 | 27.0 µs | 55.4 µs | UOV |
| UOV | Multivariate | On-ramp | Is-classic | 1 | 412,160 | 96 | 412,256 | 28.3 µs | 17.2 µs | UOV |
| UOV | Multivariate | On-ramp | Ip-pkc | 1 | 43,576 | 128 | 43,704 | 26.4 µs | 50.6 µs | UOV |
| UOV | Multivariate | On-ramp | Ip-classic | 1 | 278,432 | 128 | 278,560 | 26.4 µs | 20.4 µs | UOV |
116 parameter sets
Legend: 💣 pre-quantum (classical security only) · 🧨 broken · ⚠️ security warning · ℹ️ note · value estimated from cycle counts · tap icons for details
Benchmark environment
Date 26 June 2026
CPU 12th Gen Intel(R) Core(TM) i7-12650H — 8 cores, 2 threads/core, 4600 MHz max, governor: powersave, turbo: enabled
OS Debian GNU/Linux 13 (trixie) (kernel 6.19.11-zabbly+)
Compiler cc (Debian 14.2.0-19) 14.2.0
OpenSSL OpenSSL 3.6.2 7 Apr 2026 (Library: OpenSSL 3.6.2 7 Apr 2026)
Method Median over 1000 iterations (fewer for slow schemes). Cycle counter: rdpmc CPU_CYCLES (real core cycles, user-space). Wall clock: clock_gettime(CLOCK_MONOTONIC). Benchmark thread pinned to one core.
Implementation sources ▸
- faest faest-sign/faest-arch-opt@09b2ffbc
- fndsa pornin/c-fn-dsa@33026d4d
- hawk hawk-sign/dev@1b9fef52
- mayo PQCMayo/MAYO-C@4108b71d
- mldsa pq-crystals/dilithium@6e00625c
- mqom mqom/mqom-v2@9a5a4d51
- qruov qruov/round2@787f8dba
- sdith sdith/sdith@fff41ae5
- sdith2 sdith.org/docs/sdith-package-v2.zip
- slhdsa pq-code-package/slhdsa-c@fac08b7d
- snova PQCLAB-SNOVA/SNOVA@9da14981
- sqisign SQISign/the-sqisign@91e9e464
- uov pqov/pqov@49dc53c0
Benchmark data licensed under CC-BY-4.0 — Thom Wiggers / PQShield