A reading edition for today
Read the debate in the form it first entered public life.
In 1787 and 1788, the essays of “Publius” arrived one by one in New York newspapers. This edition brings all eighty-five together with their original words, an optional clean reading view, and a little friendly context for the conversation afterward.
Publius had opponents: read the eight Anti-Federalist essays beside the papers they answer.
How to read this edition
Three ways to begin
One paper at a time
The essays work well at the pace of their original publication: one at a time, with room to think between them. Your progress stays privately in this browser—there is no account to create.
Follow a companion
Short guides point to the best-known essays on faction, the division of power, the presidency, and the courts.
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Publius can call at your address instead—one paper each week, or each on the very date it first appeared. Confirmed by return post; leave whenever you like.
The complete collection
All eighty-five papers
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Federalist number 1
General Introduction
Introduces the ratification debate and asks readers to choose reflection over passion.
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist number 2
Concerning Dangers from Foreign Force and Influence
Argues that Americans already form one people and should remain one nation.
John Jay
Federalist number 3
The Same Subject Continued (Concerning Dangers From Foreign Force and Influence)
Says one capable national government can better prevent justified wars with foreign powers.
John Jay
Federalist number 4
The Same Subject Continued (Concerning Dangers From Foreign Force and Influence)
Argues that Union also deters wars driven by foreign ambition rather than American wrongdoing.
John Jay
Federalist number 5
The Same Subject Continued (Concerning Dangers From Foreign Force and Influence)
Warns that separate confederacies would invite rivalry, foreign influence, and strategic weakness.
John Jay
Federalist number 6
Concerning Dangers from Dissensions Between the States
Rejects the hope that independent states would remain peaceful simply because they are republics.
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist number 7
The Same Subject Continued (Concerning Dangers from Dissensions Between the States)
Shows how trade, borders, debt, and western lands could turn states against one another.
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist number 8
The Consequences of Hostilities Between the States
Predicts that disunion would produce standing armies, fortified borders, and shrinking liberty.
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist number 9
The Union as a Safeguard Against Domestic Faction and Insurrection
Claims an extended federal republic can restrain faction and domestic violence.
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist number 10
James Madison
Federalist number 11
The Utility of the Union in Respect to Commercial Relations and a Navy
Connects Union to commercial power, maritime strength, and bargaining leverage abroad.
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist number 12
The Utility of the Union In Respect to Revenue
Argues that Union makes revenue collection fairer, easier, and less dependent on intrusive taxes.
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist number 13
Advantage of the Union in Respect to Economy in Government
Says one national government costs less than several complete confederate governments.
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist number 14
Objections to the Proposed Constitution From Extent of Territory Answered
Defends representative government across a large territory and distinguishes republic from democracy.
James Madison
Federalist number 15
The Insufficiency of the Present Confederation to Preserve the Union
Argues that the Confederation is collapsing because it governs states rather than individuals.
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist number 16
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist number 17
The Same Subject Continued (The Insufficiency of the Present Confederation to Preserve the Union)
Predicts states will remain powerful because daily life keeps citizens attached to local government.
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist number 18
James Madison with Alexander Hamilton
Federalist number 19
James Madison with Alexander Hamilton
Federalist number 20
James Madison with Alexander Hamilton
Federalist number 21
Other Defects of the Present Confederation
Identifies missing sanctions, mutual guarantees, and revenue as fatal defects of the Confederation.
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist number 22
The Same Subject Continued (Other Defects of the Present Confederation)
Adds commercial weakness, unequal voting, unanimity, and missing courts to the case against the Articles.
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist number 23
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist number 24
The Powers Necessary to the Common Defense Further Considered
Defends congressional control of standing forces while emphasizing legislative checks and practical need.
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist number 25
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist number 26
The Idea of Restraining the Legislative Authority in Regard to the Common Defense Considered.
Claims legislative control makes military tyranny less likely under the Constitution than under the Articles.
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist number 27
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist number 28
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist number 30
Concerning the General Power of Taxation
Begins the case for broad federal taxation as the indispensable support of national responsibilities.
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist number 31
The Same Subject Continued (Concerning the General Power of Taxation)
Uses first principles to argue that unlimited responsibilities require adequate, not artificially limited, revenue powers.
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist number 32
The Same Subject Continued (Concerning the General Power of Taxation)
Explains that federal taxation generally coexists with state taxation rather than eliminating it.
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist number 33
The Same Subject Continued (Concerning the General Power of Taxation)
Defends the Necessary and Proper and Supremacy Clauses as statements of unavoidable constitutional logic.
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist number 34
The Same Subject Continued (Concerning the General Power of Taxation)
Argues federal and state revenue needs cannot be divided neatly by fixed categories.
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist number 35
The Same Subject Continued (Concerning the General Power of Taxation)
Defends broad taxation and representation while considering who will understand different economic interests.
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist number 36
The Same Subject Continued (Concerning the General Power of Taxation)
Concludes that federal taxation can use local knowledge and coexist with state revenue systems.
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist number 29
Concerning the Militia
Defends federal authority over the militia while rejecting fears of universal military regimentation.
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist number 37
Concerning the Difficulties of the Convention in Devising a Proper Form of Government.
Describes the Convention’s immense difficulty balancing energy, liberty, federalism, and practical compromise.
James Madison
Federalist number 38
The Same Subject Continued, and the Incoherence of the Objections to the New Plan Exposed.
Mocks inconsistent objections and asks critics to compare the Constitution with realistic alternatives.
James Madison
Federalist number 39
The Conformity of the Plan to Republican Principles
Defines republican government and explains the Constitution’s mixture of federal and national features.
James Madison
Federalist number 40
On the Powers of the Convention to Form a Mixed Government Examined and Sustained.
Defends the Convention’s authority to propose a new system rather than merely revise the Articles.
James Madison
Federalist number 41
General View of the Powers Conferred by The Constitution
Begins reviewing federal powers by defending security powers against charges of dangerous breadth.
James Madison
Federalist number 42
The Powers Conferred by the Constitution Further Considered
Reviews powers over foreign affairs, interstate relations, trade, naturalization, and related national concerns.
James Madison
Federalist number 43
The Same Subject Continued (The Powers Conferred by the Constitution Further Considered)
Defends miscellaneous powers involving federal property, republican government, amendments, debts, and ratification.
James Madison
Federalist number 44
Restrictions on the Authority of the Several States
Defends limits on state powers and the clauses needed to make federal authority effective.
James Madison
Federalist number 45
The Alleged Danger From the Powers of the Union to the State Governments.
Argues federal powers are few, targeted, and less threatening than the states’ broad everyday authority.
James Madison
Federalist number 46
The Influence of the State and Federal Governments Compared
Says states possess stronger popular ties and ample tools to resist federal encroachment.
James Madison
Federalist number 47
James Madison
Federalist number 48
James Madison
Federalist number 49
James Madison (attribution disputed)
Federalist number 50
Periodical Appeals to the People Considered
Argues scheduled conventions would be too late, too partisan, and too weak to prevent encroachment.
James Madison (attribution disputed)
Federalist number 51
James Madison (attribution disputed)
Federalist number 52
The House of Representatives
Defends the House’s direct election, voter qualifications, and two-year terms.
James Madison (attribution disputed)
Federalist number 53
The Same Subject Continued (The House of Representatives)
Argues two-year House terms provide needed knowledge without sacrificing accountability.
James Madison (attribution disputed)
Federalist number 54
The Apportionment of Members Among the States
Explains representation and direct taxation by population while confronting the three-fifths compromise.
James Madison (attribution disputed)
Federalist number 55
The Total Number of the House of Representatives
Defends the initial size of the House against fears that it is too small.
James Madison (attribution disputed)
Federalist number 56
The Same Subject Continued (The Total Number of the House of Representatives)
Says representatives can understand local interests without mirroring every locality or occupation.
James Madison (attribution disputed)
Federalist number 57
James Madison (attribution disputed)
Federalist number 58
Objection That The Number of Members Will Not Be Augmented as the Progress of Population Demands.
Defends future House growth and rejects fears that smaller states or the Senate can permanently block it.
James Madison (attribution disputed)
Federalist number 59
Concerning the Power of Congress to Regulate the Election of Members
Defends federal authority over congressional elections as essential to preserving the Union.
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist number 60
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist number 61
The Same Subject Continued (Concerning the Power of Congress to Regulate the Election of Members)
Concludes that federal election safeguards are ordinary prudence, not evidence of planned consolidation.
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist number 62
The Senate
Defends the Senate’s qualifications, state representation, staggered terms, and stabilizing role.
James Madison (attribution disputed)
Federalist number 63
The Senate Continued
Argues the Senate supplies continuity, international credibility, and a check on temporary public error.
James Madison (attribution disputed)
Federalist number 64
The Powers of the Senate
Defends the Senate’s role in treaties through select membership, secrecy, knowledge, and continuity.
John Jay
Federalist number 65
The Powers of the Senate Continued
Defends Senate trials of impeachments as the least imperfect forum for political misconduct.
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist number 66
Objections to the Power of the Senate To Set as a Court for Impeachments Further Considered.
Answers objections that Senate impeachment trials violate separation, bias senators, or weaken defendants’ protections.
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist number 67
The Executive Department
Begins defending the presidency by separating the Constitution’s text from exaggerated claims about executive power.
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist number 68
The Mode of Electing the President
Defends the Electoral College as a buffer against tumult, intrigue, and foreign influence.
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist number 69
The Real Character of the Executive
Contrasts the president’s limited, accountable powers with those of the British king and state governors.
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist number 70
The Executive Department Further Considered
Makes the classic case that an energetic executive requires unity, duration, support, and competent powers.
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist number 71
The Duration in Office of the Executive
Defends a four-year presidential term so the executive can resist temporary passions and carry policy through.
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist number 72
The Same Subject Continued, and Re-Eligibility of the Executive Considered.
Rejects presidential term limits as harmful to experience, accountability, continuity, and public choice.
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist number 73
The Provision For The Support of the Executive, and the Veto Power
Defends presidential salary protection and the qualified veto as safeguards for executive independence.
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist number 74
The Command of the Military and Naval Forces, and the Pardoning Power of the Executive.
Assigns military command and pardons to the president for unity, speed, and humane discretion.
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist number 75
The Treaty-Making Power of the Executive
Defends shared treaty power as neither purely executive nor purely legislative.
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist number 76
The Appointing Power of the Executive
Defends presidential nomination with Senate consent as a balance of responsibility and restraint.
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist number 77
The Appointing Power Continued and Other Powers of the Executive Considered.
Completes the executive defense by reviewing appointments, accountability, and the presidency’s overall balance.
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist number 78
The Judiciary Department
Defends judicial independence, lifetime tenure, and courts’ duty to prefer the Constitution over invalid laws.
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist number 79
The Judiciary Continued
Protects judicial salaries while preserving removal through impeachment for genuine misconduct.
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist number 80
The Powers of the Judiciary
Defines the categories of disputes that require federal rather than separate state courts.
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist number 81
The Judiciary Continued, and the Distribution of the Judicial Authority.
Explains the Supreme Court, inferior federal courts, and the limits of feared judicial supremacy.
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist number 82
The Judiciary Continued.
Argues state courts retain broad jurisdiction unless the Constitution makes federal jurisdiction exclusive.
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist number 83
The Judiciary Continued in Relation to Trial by Jury
Rejects claims that the Constitution abolishes civil juries and leaves their design to future legislation.
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist number 84
Certain General and Miscellaneous Objections to the Constitution Considered and Answered.
Argues a bill of rights is unnecessary and potentially dangerous while defending habeas and other protections.
Alexander Hamilton
Federalist number 85
Concluding Remarks
Concludes that ratification is safer than seeking uncertain perfection through another convention.
Alexander Hamilton